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THE 

DICTIONARY 

OF 

MERCHANDISE. 

K  l '  i 


i 


DICTIONA 

jfWcrcfjmrtiise, 

AND 

NOMENCLATURE 

IN  ALL  LANGUAGES  j 

FOR 

THE  USE  OF  COUNTING-HOUSES: 


CONTAINING, 

THE  HISTORY,  PLACES  OF  GROWTH,  CULTURE,  USE,  AND 
MARKS  OF  EXCELLENCY, 

OF  SUCH  NATURAL  PRODUCTIONS,  AS  FORM 

ARTICLES  OF  COMMERCE; 

WITH 

THEIR  NAMES  IN  ALL  EUROPEAN  LANGUAGES. 


lipbilaDelplria: 

PRINTED  AND  SOLD  BY  JAMES  HUMPHREYS, 

At  the  Corner  of  Second  and  Walnut -streets. 


1805. 


PREFACE. 


THE  objedt  of  this  Dictionary  is,  to  give 
an  account  of  the  origin,  places  of  growth, 
culture,  use,  and  the  marks  by  which  the  ex¬ 
cellency  may  be  ascertained,  of  those  principal 
productions  of  nature,  which  form  materials  for 
commerce;  some  of  these  in  their  original  raw 
state,  as  spices,  seeds,  corn,  woods,  fruit,  &c. 
others  after  having  received  a  new  form  from 
human  art,  as  metals,  oils,  spirits,  ashes,  salts, 
flax,  &c.  But  such  articles  of  trade,  as  have 
undergone  a  still  further  change,  to  make  them 
fit  for  use,  and  which  are  comprehended  under 
the  general  denomination  of  manufactures,  as 
cloths,  callicoes,  muslins,  hardware,  earthen¬ 
ware,  glass,  &c.  are  excluded  from  the  present 


VI 


PREFACE. 


work,  as  being  objects  not  so  universally  inte¬ 
resting,  and  requiring  by  themselves  a  Diction¬ 
ary  of  much  larger  volume  than  this. 

The  extent  of  this  undertaking,  is  such,  that 
no  man  has  opportunity  or  ability,  to  get  tho¬ 
roughly  acquainted  with  every  material  of  traf¬ 
fic,  so  as  to  describe  it  from  his  own  experience. 
But  the  author  having  been  in  business  for  a 
number  of  years,  and  during  his  travels  in  most 
parts  of  Europe,  made  it  his  study,  to  inquire 
into  the  nature  of  merchandise,  flatters  himself, 
to  have  given  from  his  own  observations,  a  more 
true  and  full  account  of  many  articles,  thaa 
there  was  ever  published  before. 

This  publication,  the  author  presumes,  will 
be  one  of  the  most  useful  and  necessary  works 
of  a  counting  house  library,  and  though  princi¬ 
pally  written  for  the  merchant  he  conceives,  it 
will  be  of  service  to  every  man  of  business  or 
curiosity. 

Every  man  in  some  degree  is  a  merchant,  in 
so  far,  as  he  has  something  to  buy  or  to  sell  ^ 


PREFACE. 


Vll 


/  '  ,  w 

and  it  may  be  interesting  for  him  to  acquire  a 
knowledge  of  the  nature  of  his  commodity. 

To  render  this  book  the  more  useful  for  the 
foreign  merchant  the  names  in  the  twelve  most 
current  languages,  have  been  prefixed  to  every 
article  of  importance,  viz. 

The  letter  F.  stands  for  French 


G. . German 

D . Dutch 

I . Italian 

S.... . Spanish 

P . Portuguese 

DA . Danish 

SW . Swedish 

POL . Polish 

R . Russian 

L . . Latin. 


THE 


DICTIONARY 


OF 

jtflerrfjantifee* 


ACACIA. 


S.  Acacia  <verdadera ,  6  de 
Lev  ante, 

P.  Acacia, 

L.  Acacicz  succus, 

AN  inspissated  juice,  obtained  by  pressure,  from  the 
kernels  of  the  pods  of  the  Acacia  vera,  a  thorn-shrub 
growing  in  Egypt  and  Arabia.  It  is  of  a  tan  colour,  smooth, 
shining,  and  of  a  disagreeable  taste;  and  comes  to  us  from 
the  Levant,  made  up  in  round  balls,  covered  with  fine  blad¬ 
ders. 

The  German  Acacia,  being  nothing  more,  than  the  juice 
of  unripe  sloes,  boiled  to  a  solid  consistence,  and  put  up  in 
bladders,  is  frequently  sold  for  the  true  Acacia.  This  im- 
B 


F.  Sue  d>  Acacia, 

G.  Acaciensaft . 

I.  Acacia, 


10 


position  may  easily  be  distinguished,  by  the  colour  of  the 
German  Acacia,  which  is  as  black  as  Spanish  liquorice. 

ACAJOU  NUTS. 


F.  Noix  d'  Acajou. 

G.  Akajunuise. 

Come  from  Jamaica,  and  other  islands  in  the  West  Indies 
about  the  same  latitude. 

The  Acajou  tree,  anacardium,  in  a  good  soil,  spreads  to 
the  size  of  an  English  walnut  tree,  which  it  much  resembles, 
in  the  shape  and  smell  of  the  leaves.  It  produces  a  large 
fruit  like  a  pear,  but  the  great  end  towards  the  stalk.  At 
the  small  end  of  the  fruit,  it  brings  forth  a  nut,  resembling 
a  kidney,  about  the  bigness  of  a  walnut.  The  outer  shell 
of  this  nut  is  of  an  ash  colour,  and  very  smooth  ;  under,  this 
is  another,  which  covers  the  kernel ;  between  these  lays  a 
viscid,  inflammable  oil,  of  a  reddish  colour,  extremely  acrid, 
bitter,  and  caustic,  which  has  been  used  with  great  success, 
in  eating  off  cancerous  ulcers,  &c.  The  kernel  when  fresh 
gathered,  has  a  most  delicious 'taste,  and  abounds  with  a 
sweet  milky  juice.  It  is  likewise  an  ingredient  in  puddings, 
and  other  agreeable  preparations.  When  somewhat  older, 
it  is  generally  roasted.  Ground  with  cocoa,  it  makes  an  ex¬ 
cellent  chocolate.  When  kept  too  long,  the  kernel  becomes 
shrivelled,  and  loses  its  flavour  and  best  qualities. 

The  Acajou  tree'  annually  transudes,  from  five,  often  to 
ten  or  twelve  pounds,  of  a  fine  semi-transparent  gum,  simi¬ 
lar  to  gum  Arabic,  and  little  inferior  to  it  in  virtue.  From 
this  tree  is  also  procured,  by  incision,  a  milky  juice,  which 
stains  linen  of  a  lasting  deep  black. 

AGARIC. 

F.  Agaric. 

G.  L  arc  hens  ch-JCG7r.m . 

L.  Agaric  us. 

This  is  a  kind  of  fungous  excrescence,  growing  on  the 
trunks  and  large  branches  of  several  trees,  particularly  the 


11 


larch  tree,  in  Muscovy  and  Tartary ;  though  an  inferior  sort 
also  grows  on  the  Alps,  the  mountains  of  Dauphine,  ai)d  the 
Trentine. 

The  best  Agaric  ought  to  be  large,  white  and  loose ;  of 
taste,  first  sweet  and  then  bitterish.  This  article  was  for¬ 
merly  much  esteemed  in  pharmacy  and  physic. 

There  is  also  a  rough,  yellowish,  and  woody  kind  of  Aga¬ 
ric,  used  in  dying. 


AGATE. 


DA.  Agat. 
SW.  Agat. 
POL.  Agat . 
R.  Agat. 

L.  Agates . 


F.  Agate. 

G.  Achat. 
D.  Achaat . 
I.  Agat  a. 
S.  A  gat  a. 


P.  A  agat  a. 

This  is  a  precious  stone,  differently  denominated,  accord¬ 
ing  to  its  different  colours  ;  some  being  transparent,  some 
opaque ;  and  some  partly  transparent,  and  partly  opaque. 

The  Sardian  Agates  are  red,  and  the  most  valuable  of  that 
kind  are  the  flesh  coloured,  mixed  with  brown ;  the  less 
valuable  are  those,  whose  red  borders  upon  a  yellow. 

The  onyx  is  entirely  opaque,  and  of  a  whitish  and  black 
colour. 

The  sardonyx  participates  of  the  nature  of  the  onyx  and 
sardian,  and  is  the  most  precious  of  all  kinds  of  Agates. 

The  Egyptian  Agate  is  very  hard  *,  red,  and  intermixed 
with  white  and  blue.  That  which  resembles  a  rainbow,  is 
the  most  valuable  kind. 

The  Chalcedonic  Agates  are  half  transparent,  of  a  rose 
colour,  and  clouded.  There  are  some  also  white,  but  these 
are  scarce. 

The  Roman  Agate  is  of  various  colours.  In  Germany, 
Agates  are  to  be  found ;  in  Saxony,  Bohemia,  and  the 
county  of  Leuchtenberg. 

The  Agate  is  used  for  making  beads,  rings,  seals,  handles 
for  knives  and  forks,  hilts  for  swords,  snuff-boxes,  and  abun¬ 
dance  of  toys. 


12 

AGNUS-CASTUS  SEED. 


F,  Petit  poicre. 

G.  Keuschlammsamen ,  Schafm  'ui- 

len. 

D.  Kuischboomxaad. 

I.  Semenza  d’ agnocasto. 


S.  Pimiento  loco,  Snuzgatillo. 
P.  Samentc  de  agnocasto . 

DA.  Agnus-castus froe . 

SW.  Agnus-castus fro . 

L.  Agni-casti  semen . 


Agnus  castus  seed,  is  the  fruit  of  a  shrub  of  that  name, 
growing  sometimes  to  the  size  of  a  middling  tree,  a  native 
of  most  warm  climates.  It  delights  in  the  banks  of  rivers, 
and  other  marshy  soils.  Its  leaves  resemble  those  of  the  olive 
tree,  but  are  much  softer  and  longer.  Its  blossoms  are  odo¬ 
riferous,  of  a  purple  colour,  and  sometimes  white j  these  are 
succeeded  by  seeds,  which  are  first  of  a  white,  and  at  last  of 
a  dark  red  colour,  something  similar  to  coriander  seed. 
They  are  of  a  sharp  aromatic  taste,  and  the  best  ought  to  be 
new,  large,  and  plump. 

This  seed  is  chiefly  used  in  venereal  complaints. 


ALABASTER. 


F.  Allatre. 

G.  Alabaster . 
D.  Alabaster . 
I.  A  lab  astro. 
S.  Alab astro* 
P.  Alabastro . 


DA.  Alabaster. 
SW.  Alabaster . 
POL.  Alabaster . 
R.  A lab  as  tr. 

L.  Alabastrites . 


Alabaster  is  a  kind  of  stone,  softer  than  marble,  and  more 
easily  worked.  Its  colours  are  yarious,  but  the  white  is  the 
most  beautiful.  Some  sorts  are  extremely  white  and  shi¬ 
ning  ;  some  red,  like  coral  •,  some  of  a  dark  horny  colour,  re¬ 
sembling  onyx  *,  and  atf other  sort  of  a  yellowish  colour,  like 
honey,  variegated  with  specks  and  little  veins. 

This  stone  is  found  in  the  greatest  quantities  in  Saxony 
at  Nordhausen,  in  some  p&ts  of  Lorrain,  at  Clugny  in 
France,  about  Rome  in  Italy,  in  various  places  of  Sicily  and 
Egypt,  &c.  for  which  see  the  article  Marble.  But  the  most 
valuable  sort  is  produced  at  Muntaia,  in  the  Papal  territories, 
where  the  Alabaster  is  in  the  highest  esteem,  for  its  beautiful 
whiteness,  and  admirable  magnitude. 


13 


Alabaster  is  principally  used  by  statuaries,  also  for  making 
various  toys  and  utensils. 

ALE 

Is  a  fermented  liquor,  obtained  from  an  infusion  of  malt, 
and  differing  only  from  beer,  by  having  a  smaller  proportion 
of  hops. 

Ale  is  thought  the  same  kind  of  liquor  with  the  cerevisia, 
zythum,  and  curmi  of  the  ancients. 

There  are  several  sorts  of  ale,  prepared  in  different  ways. 
Pale  ale  is  brewed  of  malt,  slightly  dried,  and  is  esteemed 
more  viscid,  than  brown  ale,  which  is  made  of  malt  more 
highly  dried  or  roasted. 

\  ALMONDS. 


F.  Amande s. 

G.  Mandeln. 

D.  Amandelen . 

I.  Mandole ,  Mandorle . 
S.  Almendras. 

P.  A  me  a  do  as . 


DA.  Mandler. 
SW.  Mandlar. 
POL.  Migdal. 
R.  Mindal. 

L.  Amygdala . 


Almonds  are  the  fruit  of  the  Amygdalus  communis,  a  tree 
or  shrub  growing  to  the  height  of  near  twenty  feet.  It  much 
resembles  a  peach  tree,  is  a  native  of  Africa,  but  very  com¬ 
mon  now  in  all  the  southern  parts  of  France,  Spain,  and 
Italy. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  Almonds,  sweet  and  bitter.  The 
greatest  quantity  of  both  sorts,  is  collected  in  Syria,  Barbary, 
Turkey,  Spain,  Italy,  the  island  of  Cyprus,  and  France. 
In  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  Almonds  abound  in  the  territories 
of  Bari,  Lecce,  and  the  Abruzzo ;  but  the  best  come  from 
Bari.  In  Sicily,  the  principal  loading  places  for  Almonds 
are,  Palma,  Girgenti,  Mascari,  Catanea,  & c.  They  give 
the  preference  to  those  of  Mascari.  The  Almonds  are  ga¬ 
thered  about  the  end  of  August,  and  in  September ;  but 
they  cannot  be  shipped  until  the  middle  of  October,  as  it  re¬ 
quires  time  to  take  off  the  shells  and  to  dry  them. 

In  the  trade  of  this  country,  three  sorts  of  Almonds  are 
distinguished  ;  small  Barbary  ;  long  Jordan ;  and  short, 


]  4* 


broad,  Spanish  or  Valencia  Almonds.  This  fruit,  to  be  good, 
ought  to  be  of  a  fresh  yellow  colour,  large,  of  a  line  flavour, 
and  as  little  broken  as  possible. 

Almonds  make  a  very  considerable  part  of  the  French  trade, 
as  well  on  account  of  the  oils  extra&ed  from  them,  as  on  ac¬ 
count  of  the  prodigious  consumption  of  this  fruit  in  lent. 

In  medicine,  Almonds  are  chiefly  used  for  making  emul¬ 
sions. 


ALOE ; 


DA.  Aloe. 
SW.  Alee . 

R.  Sabir. 


POL.  Aloes,  Aloa. 
L.  Alee. 


S.  Aloe,  Adbar. 


P.  Aloes ,  Azevre. 

Of  this  genus  of  plants  there  are  ten  species,  whereof  the 
most  current  are  : 

The  Aloe  perfoliata  or  Aloe  succotrina ,  or  socotorina, 
brought  from  the  island  Socotora  in  the  Indian  ocean,  wrapt 
in  skins.  It  is  the  inspissated  juice  of  the  Asiatic  Aloe,  pre¬ 
pared  in  the  following  manner.  From  the  leaves  fresh  pull¬ 
ed,  is  pressed  a  juice,  the  thinner  and  purer  part  of  which 
is  poured  off,  and  set  in  the  sun,  to  evaporate  to  a  hard  yel¬ 
lowish  substance.  This  sort  is  the  purest  of  those,  which  we 
shall  enumerate.  It  is  of  a  glossy  surface,  clear,  and  in  some 
degree  pellucid  ;  in  the  lump,  of  a  yellowish  red  colour  with 
a  purple  cast ;  when  reduced  to  powder  of  a  bright  golden 
colour.  It  is  hard  and  friable  in  the  winter,  somewhat  plia- 
able  in  summer,  and  grows  soft  betwixt  the  fingers.  Its 
taste  is  bitter,  accompanied  with  an  aromatic  flavour,  but  in¬ 
sufficient  to  prevent  its  being  disagreeable.  The  smell  is 
not  very  unpleasant,  and  somewhat  resembles  that  of  myrrh. 

The  Succotrine  Aloe  plant  has  long  narrow  succulent 
leaves,  which  come  out  without  any  order,  and  form  large 
heads.  The  stalks  grow  to  the  height  of  three  or  four  feet, 
and  have  two,  three,  and  sometimes  four  of  these  heads 
branching  out.  The  lower  leaves  spread  on  every  side,  but 
the  upper  leaves  turn  inward  towards  the  center.  The  flow¬ 
ers  grow  in  long  spikes,  upon  stalks  about  two  feet  high, 


15 


each  standing  upon  a  pretty  long  foot  stalk ;  they  are  of  a 
bright  red  colour,  tipt  with  green. 

The  Aloe  hepatica ,  Barbadoes,  or  common  Aloe,  called 
hepatic,  on  account  of  its  liver  colour,  is  not  so  clear  and 
bright  as  the  foregoing  sort ;  it  is  also  of  a  more  compact 
texture  and  generally  drier.  Its  smell  is  much  stronger  and 
more  disagreeable,  the  taste  intensely  bitter,  with  little  or 
nothing  of  the  fine. aromatic  flavour  of  the  Socotorine.  The 
best  hepatic  Aloes  come  from  Turkey.  This  species  also 
grow  in  Barbadoes  and  Jamaica,  from  wdience  the  better 
quality  is  imported  in  large  gourd  shells ;  and  an  inferior 
sort  of  it,  generally  soft  and  clammy,  in  casks.  This  sort 
of  Aloe  is  said  to  be  common  also  in  the  other  West  India 
islands. 

Aloe  caballina ,  ‘fetid,  cabafiine,  or  horse  Aloe,  is  supposed 
to  be  obtained  from  the  same  species  with  the  foregoing; 
but  being  the  thicker  part  prepared  in  a  different  manner. 
It  is  chiefly  distinguished  by  its  strong  rank  smell,  and  used 
as  a  purge  for  horses. 

The  following  is  the  method  of  preparing  Aloes  in  Ja¬ 
maica.  When  they  are  grown  into  a  perfect  state,  the  la¬ 
bourers  go  into  the  field  with  tubs  and  knives,  and  cut  off  the 
largest  and  most  succulent  leaves  close  to  the  stalk ;  these  are 
immediately  placed  in  the  tubs,  and  ranged  one  by  the  side 
of  another,  in  an  upright  position,  with  the  cut-part  down¬ 
wards,  that  all  the  loose  liquor  may  dribble  out  at  the  wound. 
Some  make  also  a  longitudinal  incision  from  top  to  bottom, 
to  facilitate  the  discharge.  When  the  juice  has  been  by  this 
means  sufficiently  extracted,  it  is  put  into  shallow  flat-bot¬ 
tomed  receivers,  and  gradually  exhaled  in  the  sun,  till  it  has 
acquired  a  due  consistence,  and  thus  prepared,  it  is  packed 
in  large  dry  gourds  for  exportation. 

The  method  of  preparing  the  common  or  horse  Aloes,  is 
not  so  tedious  •,  for  in  manufacturing  these,  all  the  leaves 
are  cut  off,  severed  into  junks,  and  thrown  into  the  tubs, 
there  to  lie,  till  the  juice  is  pretty  well  drained  out ;  they 
are  then  hand-squeezed,  and  the  liquor  mixed  with  water, 
in  the  proportion  of  about  one  quart  to  ten  quarts  of  juice ; 
after  which  it  is  put  into  convenient  boilers,  and  evaporated 
to  a  due  consistence,  when  it  is  emptied  into  large  shallow 
coolers,  and  afterwards  into  small  barrels. 

As  the  drossy  resinous  part  of  the  Aloes  is  not  soluble  in 
water,  it  has  been  found,  when  combined  with  other  mix- 


\ 


16 


tures,  an  excellent  preservative  to  ships  bottoms  against  the 
worm,  on  account  of  its  bitter  nauseous  acrimony.  Fi*om 
the  American  Aloe  a  vegetable  soap  is  prepared  in  Jamaica, 
which  will  serve  for  use  in  washing  linen  as  well  as  Castile 
soap  •,  but  it  has  the  superior  quality  of  mixing  and  forming 
a  lather  with  salt  water,  as  well  as  fresh. 

All  the  different  kinds  of  Aloes  are  gum-resins,  with  more 
gummous  than  resinous  parts ;  they  are  used  in  medicine  as 
a  stimulating  stomachic  purge. 


ALOE-WOOD. 


F.  Bois  a' Aloes. 

G.  Aloeholz. . 

D.  Aloe  bout. . 

I.  Leg  no  di  Aloe. 
S.  Aloe  Chino. 

P.  Bdo  de  Aloes . 


DA.  Aloetrcee . 

SW.  Aloetrdd, 

POL.  Aloe  drze^wko, 
R.  Aloe  derenvo 
L.  Lignum  Aloes. 


The  Aloe  wood  is  the  product  of  the  Exccecaria  agalloca, 
a  tree  growing  in  China,  and  some  of  the  Indian  islands. 
There  are  three  sorts  j  the  calambac  or  tambac,  the  common 
Aloe  wood,  and  the  calambour. 

The  calambac,  or  finest  Aloe  wood,  called  by  authors  lig¬ 
num  Aloes  praestantissimum  ;  is  of  a  light  spongy  texture, 
very  porous,  and  its  pores  so  filled  up  with  a  soft  and  fragrant 
resin,  that  the  whole  may  be  pressed  and  dented  by  the  fin¬ 
gers  like  wax,  or  moulded  about  by  chewing  in  the  mouth, 
in  the  manner  of  mastich.  Its  scent  is  very  fragrant  and 
agreeable,  and  its  taste  acrid  and  bitterish,  but  very  aroma¬ 
tic  and  pleasant.  It  is  very  variable  in  its  colour ;  some  va¬ 
riegated  with  black  and  purple;  some  with  black  and  yellow, 
and  some  yellow  alone,  like  the  yolk  of  an  egg. 

The  common  Aloe  wood,  or  lignum  Aloes  vulgare,  is  thev 
second  in  value.  This  is  of  a  more  dense  and  compact  tex¬ 
ture,  and  consequently  less  resinous  than  the  other.  We 
meet  with  it  in  small  fragments,  of  a  dusky  brown  colour, 
variegated  with  resinous  black  veins.  Its  smell  is  very  agree¬ 
able,  but  not  so  strongly  perfumed  as  the  former  sort.  Its 
taste  is  somewhat  bitter  and  acrid,  but  very  aromatic. 

’  The  calambour,  called  also  agallochum  sylvestre,  and  lig¬ 
num  Aloes  Mexicanum,  is  light  and  friabl^,  of  a  dusky  and 


17 


often  mottled  colour,  between  a  dusky  green  black,  and  a 
deep  brown.  Its  smell  is  fragrant  and  agreeable .  but  much 
less  sweet,  than  either  of  the  two  other  sorts  ■,  and  its  taste 
bitterish,  but  not  so  much  acrid  or  aromatic  as  the  fine 
or  common  Aloe  wood.  It  is  said  to  be  met  with  very 
frequently,  and  in  large  logs.  This  is  the  Aloe-wood 
used  by  the  cabinet  makers  and  in-layers. 

The  two  first  sorts  of  these  Aloes  are  used  in  medicine, 
as  a  cordial.  A  very  fragrant  oil  may  be  procured  from 
them,  by  distillation,  recommended  in  paralytic  cases. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  most,  that  these  three  sorts  of  Aloe- 
wood,  are  produced  by  one  tree,  the  calarnbac  or  tambac 
being  the  heart  of  the  trunk. 


^QUIFOU,  POTTER’S  ORE. 


F.  Arquifou. 

G.  Bleyglanz • 
D.  Locaglans. 
I.  Archfoglio. 


S .  A 1 quifol . 

P.  Arquifolho. 

R.  Kubtkc<vjataia . 
L.  Gulena. 


This  is  a  sort  of  lead  ore,  which,  when  broken,  looks 
like  Antimony.  It  is  used  by  the  potters,  to  give  a  green 
varnish  to  their  works,  and  thence  it  is  called  Potter’s  ore. 
It  is  met  with  in  Cornwall,  &c. 

ALUM. 


F.  Alun,  Alum . 

G.  Alaun. 

D.  Alum. 

I.  A  Hume. 

S.  Alumhre. 

P.  Pedra  hume. 


DA,  Alun,  Aluun ,  Allun . 
SW.  Alun . 

POL.  Hulun , 

R.  K-zvu  >  %  u . 

L,  Alurnsn. 


Alum  is  an  astringent  salt,  the  component  principles  of 
which  are,  argillaceous  earth,  supersaturated  with  vitriolic 
acid  ;  it  also  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  water. 
The  proportions  of  these  constituent  principles  may  be 
ascertained  as  follows  :  first,  the  water  ar,d  superfluous 
vitriolic  acid  may  be  dissipated  by  evaporation,  or  rather 
C 


18 


distillation ;  and  the  loss  of  weight  sustained  by  the 
salt,  as  well  as  the  quantity  of  liquid  which  comes  over 
into  the  receiver,  shows  the  quantity  of  aqueous  phlegm 
and  unsaturated  acid  ;  then,  by  combining  this  with  as 
much  caustic  fixed  alkali,  as  is  sufficient  to  saturate  the 
acid,  which  comes  over,  we  know  its  proportion  to  the 
water ;  and  by  redistilling  this  new  compound,  we  have 
the  water  by  itself.  Lastly,  the  earth  may  be  obtained, 
by  precipitation  with  an  alkali  in  its  caustic  state,  either 
fixed  or  volatile.  Alum  analysed  in  this  manner,  was 
found  to  contain  thirty- eight  parts  of  vitriolic  acid,  eigh¬ 
teen  of  c*lay,  and  forty-four  of  water. 

Our  Alum  was  certainly  not  known  to  the  Greeks  or 
Romans,  and  what  the  latter  called  alumen,  was  an  im¬ 
pure  vitriol.  The  Alum  used  at  present,  was  first  disco¬ 
vered  in  the  oriental  parts  of  the  world.  Though  the  pe¬ 
riod  of  the  invention  cannot  be  exadlly  fixed,  it  seems 
certain,  that  it  was  later  than  the  twelfth  century.  One 
of  the  most  ancient  Alum-works,  of  which  we  have  any 
account,  was  that  of  the  Roccha,  now  Edessa,  a  city  of 
Syria ;  and  from  this  city  was  derived  the  appellation  of 
Roch-alum ;  'an  expression  so  little  understood  by  the  ge¬ 
nerality,  that  it  has  been  supposed  to  signify  Rock-alum. 
At  present  every  fine  kind  of  Alum,  and  particularly  the 
purest  Roman  Alum  goes  under  the  denomination  of  Roch 
Alum.  From  this,  and  from  works  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Constantinople,  as  well  as  at  Phocsea  Nova,  now  Foya 
Nova,  near  Smyrna,  the  Italians  were  supplied  till  the 
middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  when  they  began  to  set 
up  works  of  a  similar  kind  in  their  own  country.  The 
first  Italian  Alum-work  is  said  to  have  been  established  in 
the  island  of  Ischia  about  1482,  by  Bartholomew  Per- 
dix,  orPernix,  a  Genoese  merchant,  who  had  discovered 
the  proper  matrix,  or  ore  of  Alum.  But  some  affirm, 
that  as  early  as  the  year  1458,  the  Alum- work  at  Vol- 
terra,  in  the  district  of  Pisa,  had  been  ere&ed  by  a  Ge¬ 
noese,  named  Antonius.  Soon  after,  viz.  about  the  year 
1460  or  1465,  Alum  ore  was  discovered  at  Tolfa,  in  the 
territories  of  the  church,  by  John  de  Castro,  who  had 
visited  the  Alum  manufactories  at  Constantinople.  Having 
observed  the  Ilex  aquifolium  to  grow  in  the  neighbour¬ 
hood  of  the  Turkish  manufactories,  and  finding  the  same 
near  Tolfa,  he  concluded  that  the  materials  for  Alum, 


\ 


19 

were  to  be  found  there  also ;  and  was  quickly  confirmed 
in  his  suspicion,  by  the  taste  of  the  stones  in  the  neigh¬ 
bourhood.  These  Alum-works  prospered  exceedingly, 
and  their  success  was  augmented  by  an  edict  of  Pope  Pius 
II.  prohibiting  the  use  of  foreign  Alum. — In  the  sixteenth 
century,  an  Alum  manufactory  was  erected  at  Alamaron, 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Carthagena,  where  it  still  con¬ 
tinues.  Several  others  were  erected  in  Germany.  The 
preparation  of  this  salt,  was  not  known  in  Sweden,  till 
the  seventeenth  century. 

The  first  Alum-work  in  England,  was  erefted  at  Gisbo- 
rough  in  Yorkshire,  in  the  reign  of  Oueen  Elizabeth.  Sir 
Thomas  Chaloner  observing  the  trees  tinged  with  an  un¬ 
usual  colour,  made  him  suspicious  of  its  being  owing  to 
some  mineral  in  the  neighbourhood.  Pie  found  out,  that 
the  strata  abounded  with  an  aluminous  salt.  Upon  this, 
he  privately  engaged  workmen  belonging  to  the  Pope’s 
Alum-works,  and  in  a  little  time  the  undertaking  suc¬ 
ceeded  so  well,  that  several  more  were  established  ;  and 
in  later  times  the  proprietors  of  the  British  Alum-works 
went  so  far,  as  even  to  farm  those  of  the  Apostolic  cham¬ 
ber. 

The  oresfrom  which  Alum  is  prepared  for  sale,  are  of 
two  kinds;  one  containing  the  Alum  already  formed,  the 
other  only  its  principles,  which  then  are  united  by  roast¬ 
ing.  The  former  is  only  to  be  met  with  in  volcanic  coun¬ 
tries,  and  of  this  kind  are  the  principal  Italian  ores  of 
Alum,  particularly  that  employed  at  Tolfa  near  Cincelles, 
for  boiling  the  Roman  Alum.  The  Aluminous  ore  at  Sol- 
fatara  in  Italy,  consists  of  old  lava,  whitened  by  the  phlo- 
gisticated  vitriolic  acid.  A  variety  of  aluminous  ores  are 
to  be  met  with  in  different  other  parts  of  the  world.  In 
Hessia  and  Bohemia,  this  salt  is  obtained  from  wood  im¬ 
pregnated  with  bitumen.  At  Plelsingborg  in  Scania,  a 
turf  is  found,  consisting  of  the  roots  of  vegetables,  mixed 
with  nuts,  straw,  and  leaves,  often  covered  with  a  thin 
pyritous  cuticle,  which  when  elixated,  yields  Alum.  Even 
the  sulphureous  pyrites,  is  generally  mixed  with  an  argil¬ 
laceous  matter,  which  may  be  separated  by  menstrua.  In 
some  places,  sulphur,  vitriol,  and  Alum,  are  extracted 
from  the  same  material.  The  sulphur  rises  by  distillation; 
the  residuum  is  exposed  to  the  air  till  it  effloresces,  upon 
which  a  green  vitriol  is  obtained  by  lixiviation;  and  Alum 


'20 


\ 

from  the  same  liquor,  after  no  more  vitriol  will  crystallize. 
The  Alum  slate,  from  which  this  salt  is  made  near  York 
in  England,  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  Sulphur  ; 
and  therefore  produces  Alum  on  the  principles  already 
mentioned. 

The  process  which  the  Alum  ores  must  undergo,  to  ex¬ 
tract  that  :  t  are:  roasting,  elixating,  and  boiling  the 

le  for  crystallization. 

The  Roastivg  is  absolutely  necessary,  in  order  to  destroy 
the  pyrites,  or  metallized  sulphur ;  for  on  this  the  forma¬ 
tion  of  the  Alum  entirely  depends  •,  as  the  splphur  of  the 
pyrites  win  not  part  with  its  phlogiston,  without  a  burn- 
i  g  heat  in  the  open  air.  The  roasting  is  performed  in 
Sweden,  in  trie  following  manner.  Small  pieces  of  the 
ore  are  strewed  upon  a  layer  of  burning  sticks,  to  the 
thickness’  ol  half  a  foot.  Vv  hen  the  sticks  are  consumed, 
t  iesc  are  covered  nearly  to  the  same  thickness,  with  pieces 
burnt  before,  and  four  times  lixiviated.  rIhus,  strata  are 
alternately  laid,  of  such  a  thickness,  and  at  such  intervals 
of  time,  that  the  fire  may  continue,  and  the  whole  mass, 
grow  hot  and  smoke,  but  not  break  out  into  flame.  When 
the  ore  is  once  roasted,  it  still  contains  so  much  phlogis¬ 
ton,  that  water  a<fls  but  little  upon  it,  but  after  the  ope¬ 
ration  is  two  or  three  times  repeated,  the  ore  yields  its 
principles  more  freely;  the  roasting  may  even  be  repeated 
to  advantage,  till  the  whole  be  reduced  to  powder.  The 
bitumen  keeps  up  the  fire ;  for  which  reason  alternate 
layers  of  the  crude  ore  are  used,  and  in  rainy  weather, 
these  layers  of  unburnt  ore  should  be  thicker. 

The  Elixation  is  performed,  in  some  places  with  hot, 
and  at  others  with  cold  water.  In  some  places  the  water 
passes  over  the  schist,  which  has  been  washed  three  times, 
for  six  hours ;  then  that  which  has  been  twice  washed, 
next  what  has  been  once  washed,  and  lastly  the  ore  which 
has  been  newly  roasted. 

4  The  lixivium  before  boiling,  ought  to  he  as  richly  im¬ 
pregnated  with  Alum  as  possible,  in  order  to  save  fuel. 
In  some  plrces  the  taste  is  used,  as  the  only  criterion  ; 
but  in  others  the  weight  of  water  which  fill's  a  small  glass 
bottle,  is  divided  into  sixty-four  equal  parts,  each  of  which 
is  called  in  Sweden  a  panning;  and  the  quantity  by  which 
the  same  bottle,  full  of  lixivium,  exceeds  it  when  filled 
with  water,  indicates  the  quantity  of  salt  dissolved.  It  is 


21 


thought,  that  the  weight  of  the  lixivium,  ought  not  to 
exceed  the  weight  of  the  water,  more  than  four  and  a 
half  pannings. 

EOILINS  THE  LEY  FOR  CRYSTALLIZATION. 

The  ley  is  brought  from  the  pits,  and  put  into  a  leaden 
boiler,  at  the  back  of  which  is  a  reservoir,  cut  of  which 
the  loss  sustained  by  evaporation  is  constantly  supplied. 
The  boiling  is  supposed  to  be  finished,  if  the  increase  of 
weight  be  equal  to  twenty  pannings.  The  ley  then  flows 
through  proper  channels  into  coolers,  where  it  is  allowed 
to  rest  for  about  an  hour,  to  free  itself  from  the  grosser 
sediment ;  after  which  it  is  put  into  wooden  or  stone  re¬ 
ceptacles  to  crystallize*  In  eight  or  ten  days,  the  remain¬ 
ing  liquor,  commonly  called  mother  ley,  or  magistral 
water,  is  let  off  into  another  vessel.  A  great  number  of 
crystals,  generally  small  and  impure,  adhere  to  the  bottom 
and  sides  of  the  vessel,  which  are  afterwards  collected  and 
washed  in  cold  water. 

When  a  sufficient  quantity  of  the  small  crystals  is  col¬ 
lected,  they  must  then  be  put  into  the  boiler,  for  depura¬ 
tion.  They  are  now  dissolved  in  as  small  a  quantity  of 
water  as  possible  ;  after  which  the  lixivium  is  poured  into 
a  great  tub,  containing  as  much  as  the  boiler  itself.  In 
sixteen  or  eighteen  days  the  hoops  of  the  tub  pre  loosed, 
and  the  aluminous  mass  bound  with  an  iron  ring;  and  in 
twenty-eight  days  more,  the  residuum  of  the  solution  is  let 
out  through  a  hole,  and  collected  in  a  trench:  after  which 
the  saline  mass  is  dried,  and  sold  as  depurated  Alum.— - 
The  boiler,  emptied  for  the  first  crystallization,  is  next 
filled  two  thirds  full,  with  the  magistral  lixivium  ;  and  as 
soon  as  the  liquor  arrives  at  the  boiling  point,  the  Gther. 
third  is  filled  with  crude  lixivium,  with  which  the  evapo¬ 
ration  is  also  constantly  supplied.  A  certain  quantity  of  the. 
aluminous  impurities,  left  by  washing  the  salts  of  the  first 
crystallization  in  water,  is  then  added,  and  the  above  de¬ 
scribed  process  repeated.  Only  the  first  boiling  in  the 
spring,  is  performed  with  the  crude  lixivium  alone,  the 
1  rest  are  ail  done,  as  just  now  related. 

It  is  remarkable,  that  pure  Alum  cannot  be  obtained  in 
very  considerable  quantity,  by  merely  evaporating  and 
cooling  the  ley ;  and  the  lixivium  sometimes  acquires  such 


22 


a  consistence,  that  it  both  crystallizes  with  difficulty  and 
produces  impure  crystals.  This  proceeds  from  an  ex¬ 
cess  of  vitriolic  acid,  which  impedes  the  crystallization. 
This  excess  can  be  removed,  by  the  addition  of  vegetable 
and  volatile  alkalis,  but  experiments  have  proved,  that 
the  addition  of  clay  is  preferable. 

Alum,  as  commonly  made,  though  depurated  by  a 
second  crystallization,  yet  is  almost  always  found  conta¬ 
minated  by  deplilogisticated  vitriol ;  whence  it  grows  yel¬ 
low,  and  deposits  an  ochre  in  solution,  when  old.  This  is 
equally  useful  in  some  arts,  with  the  purest  kind,  and  is 
even  so  in  dying,  where  dark  colours  are  wanted ;  but 
where  the  more  lively  colours  are  required,  every  thing 
vitriolic  must  be  avoided.  This  is  done  by  the  addition  of 
pure  clay,  which  precipitates  the  iron,  and  produces  an 
Aium  entirely  void  of  any  noxious  or  heterogeneous  mat¬ 
ter. 

By  M.  Chaptal,  formerly  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Mont¬ 
pelier,  weare  furnished  with  a  method  of  preparing  Alum, by 
the  direct  combination  of  its  constituent  principles.  Alum, 
says  he,  being  produced  by  the  combination  of  the  vitriolic 
acid  with  pure  clay, all  the  known  processes  of  the  Alum  ma¬ 
nufactories,  consist,  in  facilitating  the  combination  of  the 
mixture,  by  exposing  it  to  a  moderate  heat.  Vitriolic  acid  is 
only  a  mixture  of  water  with  the  vapour  produced  by  the 
combustion  of  saltpetre  and  sulphur,  let  us  therefore  expose 
the  clay  to  the  action  of  this  vapour :  the  effects  of  the 
acids  in  a  state  of  vapour,  must  be  infinitely  greater,  than 
when  in  a  liquid  state.  Upon  this  principle,  he  esta¬ 
blished  a  large  manufactory.  Rooms  lined  with  lead,  are 
very  proper  for  the  purpose  of  burning  the  mixture  of  sul¬ 
phur  and  saltpetre,  the  vapours  of  vitriolic  acid  having 
very  little  action  upon  lead.  But  lead  is  heavy  and  ex¬ 
pensive.  He  therefore  substituted  a  cement,  consisting  of 
equal  parts  of  rosin,  turpentine,  and  wax.  A  white  and 
pure  clay  is  then  to  he  chosen,  which  in  order  to ‘dispose 
it  to  combine  with  the  vitriolic  acid,  must  first  be  calcined, 
then  reduced  to  powder,  and  in  that  £tate  exposed  to  the 
vapour  of  sulphur  and  saltpetre,  by  placing  a  layer  of  it 
upon  the  floor.  At  the  end  of  some  days,  like  incrusta¬ 
tions,  and  sometimes  even  crystals  of  pure  Alum  are  per¬ 
ceived  upon  it,  and  when  an  efflorescence  is  formed,  all, 
over  the  clay,  it  is  taken  out  of  the  room,  and  then  lixw 
yiated  in  the  usual  way. 


By  forming  proper  partitions  at  the  bottom  of  similar 
rooms,  iron,  clay,  copper,  and  water,  may  be  exposed  to 
the  vapour,  and  consequently  vitriol  of  iron,  of  copper, 
and  of  alumine,  and  vitriolic  acid,  made  at  the  same  time. 

The  different  kinds  of  Alum  differ  from  one  another, 
merely  by  being  mixed  with  some  heterogeneous  salts. 

The  Roman  Alum  is  generally  considered  preferable  to 
any  other,  and  is  usually  met  with  in  small  crystals  of  a 
reddish  colour.  Large  quantities  of  Alum  from  Whitby 
are  annually  exported  from  Great  Britain.  The  best 
British  Alum  produced  in  the  hills  of  Yorkshire  and  Lan¬ 
cashire,  is  extremely  white,  clear,  and  transparent,  and 
of  an  acid  taste,  leaving  in  the  mouth  a  sense  of  sweet¬ 
ness,  accompanied  with  a  considerable  degree  of  astrin- 
gency.  Roman  Alum  is  also  of  an  acid,  but  disagreeable 
taste.  Alum  of  Liege  and  Meziers  is  much  of  the  same 
quality  as  that  of  Yorkshire,  only  flatter,  and  conse¬ 
quently  less  proper  for  dyers. 

This  salt  is  of  important  use,  as  a  dying  material,  as  by 
means  of  it,  a  great  number  of  colours  are  fixed  and  ren¬ 
dered  permanent  upon  cloth.  It  also  constitutes  the  basis 
of  crayons.  Mixed  with  tallow,  it  gives  it  a  hardness  and 
consistence,  and  is  therefore  of  use  in  the  making  of  can¬ 
dles.  In  tanning,  it  assists  to  close  the  pores,  and  to  re¬ 
store  the  cohesion  of  skins,  almost  entirely  destroyed  by 
the  lime.  It  also,  though  to  the  great  detriment  of  the 
health  of  mankind,  is  used  by  vintners  to  fine  down  and 
to  sweeten  their  sour  wines.  Fishermen  use  Alum,  for 
the  drying  of  their  codfish,  and  bakers  mix  it  with  the 
flour,  to  make  their  bread  compa<ft  and  white.  In  medi- 
@ine  it  is  used  externally. 

AMADOW. 

F.  JlmadGu. 

G.  Z under sch'tvamm. 

A  kind  of  tinder  or  touchwood,  coming  from  Germany. 
It  is  made  of  a  kind  of  mushrooms,  or  spongy  excres¬ 
cences,  which  commonly  grow  on  old  trees.  This  sub¬ 
stance  is  boiled  in  common  water,  and  afterwards  dried, 
and  well  beaten,  then  put  in  a  strong  lye,  prepared  with 
saltpetre ;  after  which  it  is  again  put  to  dry  in  an  oven. 


AMBER. 


F.  Arnbre  jaune ,  Succin. 

G.  Bernstein. 

D.  Barn: teen. 

J  Ambra  gialla ,  o  ghiacciata. 
S.  Ambar. 

P«  Ambar,  Ambre ,  Alambre. 


D.4.  Bernsteen,  Ra<v. 
SW.  Bernsten ,  Raf. 
POL.  Bur.zlyn . 

R.  'Jantar. 

L.  Succinum ,  Eleftrum. 


This  is  a  pellucid  and  very  hard  inflammable  substance, 
of  one  uniform  structure,  a  bituminous  taste,  very  fra¬ 
grant  smell,  and  highly  electric. 

The  generality  of  authors  contend  for  this  substance 
being  a  bitumen,  which  trickling  into  the  sea  from  some 
subterraneous  sources,  and  then  mixing  with  the  vitriolic 
salts,  that  abound  in  those  parts,  becomes  congealed 
and  fixed.  However,  as  good  Amber  is  found  by  dig¬ 
ging  a  great  distance  from  the  sea,  it  is  probable  that  it  is 
a  bitumen  of  the  naphta  or  petroleum  kind,  hardened 
into  its  present  state  by  a  vitriolic  acid,  or  oil  of  vitriol. 

The  natural  colour  of  Amber  is  a  fine  pale  yellow,  but 
it  is  often  made  white,  and  sometimes  black ;  in  both 
cases,  it  is  rendered  opaque,  by  the  admixture  of  extra¬ 
neous  bodies.  The  most  frequent  variation,  however, 
from  the  yellow,  is  into  a  dusky  brown.  Sometimes  it  is 
tinged  with  metalline  particles,  and  remains  pellucid. 

The  salt,  oil,  and  tincture  of  Amber,  have  been  va¬ 
riously  applied  in  medicine ;  but  its  mechanical  use  for 
toys,  beads,  cabinets,  and  utensils,  and  the  better  sorts 
of  varnishes,  are  of  more  importance. 

This  substance  is  principally  to  be  met  with  on  the  sea 
coasts  of  Prussia.  The  river  Giaretta  in  Sicily,  formerly 
called  Simetus,  which  takes  its  rise  on  the  north  side  of 
Mount  Etna,  throws  up  near  its  mouth,  great  quantities 
of  fine  Amber,  some  of  which  is  more  eleCtric,  and  emits 
a  stronger  smeli,  than  what  is  coming  from  the  Baltic. 

Some  pieces  of  this  Amber  contain  flies  and  other  in- 
seCts,  curiously  preserved.  It  is  generally  supposed  to  is¬ 
sue  from  the  earth  in  a  liquid  state,  at  which  time  the 
inseCts  that  alight  upon  it,  are  caught,  and  by  their  strug¬ 
gle  to  get  loose,  soon  work  themselves  into  its  substance; 
wrhich  hardening  round  them,  they  are  for  ever  preserved 
in  the  greatest  perfection.  Large  fine  pieces  are  con- 


25 


stantly  found  at  the  mouth  of  the  Simetus,  supposed  to 
have  been  brought  down  by  the  river ',  but  it  is  singular, 
that  none  of  it  is  ever  found  any  where,  but  on  the  sea 
shore.  This  Amber,  at  Catanea,  is  manufactured  into 
beads,  saints,  crosses,  See. 


AMBER-GREASE,  *AMBER-GRISE,  or  GREY 
AMBER  ; 


F.  Ambregris. 

G.  Amber . 

D.  Amber ,  Ambergrys . 
I.  Ambra-grigia . 

S.  Ambar-gris. 

P.  Ambar-gris • 


DA.  Ambra. 

SW.  Ambra ,  gra  Ambra. 
R.  Ambra . 

POL.  Ambra. 

L.  Ambra ,  Ambra  grisea. 


Ambergrease  is  a  solid,  opake,  generally  ash  coloured, 
fatty,  inflammable  substance,  variegated  like  marble,  re^ 
markably  light,  rugged  and  uneven  in  its  surface,  and 
has  a  fragrant  odour  when  heated.  It  does  not  effervesce 
with  acids,  melts  freely  over  the  fire  into  a  kind  of  yellow 
rosin,  and  is  hardly  soluble  in  spirits  of  wine. 

It  is  found  on  the  sea  coasts,  or  swimming  on  the  sea, 
or  in  the  abdomen  of  whales,  in  various  shapes  and  sizes, 
weighing  from  half  an  ounce  to  upwards  of  one  hundred 
pounds. 

By  Dr.  Swediar’s  account  of  this  substance,  in  the  Phi¬ 
losophical  Transactions,  it  appears,  that  the  persons  em¬ 
ployed  in  the  whale  fishery  observe,  that  whenever  they 
hook  a  spermaceti  whale,  it  constantly  not  only  vomits 
whatever  it  has  in  its  stomach,  but  also  generally  dis¬ 
charges  its  fteces  at  the  same  time :  and  if  this  latter  cir¬ 
cumstance  happens,  they  are  generally  disappointed  in 
finding  Ambergrease  in  its  belly.  But  whenever  they  dis¬ 
cover  a  spermaceti  whale,  torpid  and  sickly,  they  are 
always  pretty  sure  to  find  Ambergrease,  as  the  whale  in 
this  state  seldom  voids  its  faeces  upon  being  hooked.  They 
likewise,  generally  meet  with  it  in  the  dead  spermaceti 
whales,  which  they  sometimes  find  floating  on  the  sea. 

The  Ambergrease  found  in  the  abdomen  of  the  whale, 
is  not  so  hard  as  that,  which  is  found  on  the  sea  coast, 
but  soon  grows  hard  in  the  air.  When  first  taken  out,  it  has 
D 


25 


nearly  the  same  colour  and  the  same  disagreeable  smell* 
though  not  so  strong,  as  the  more  liquid  dung  of  the 
whale  has :  but  on  exposing  it  to  the  air*  it  by  degrees 
not  only  grows  greyish,  but  also  loses  its  disagreeable 
smell,  and  when  kept  for  a  certain  time,  acquires  that 
particular  odour,  so  agreeable  to  most  people.  It  is  known, 
that  the  cuttle  fish  is  the  constant  food  of  the  spermaceti 
whale  ;  hence  it  is  easy  to  account  for  the  many  beaks,  or 
pieces  of  beaks,  found  in  all  Ambergrease.  Dr.  Swediar 
therefore  defines  Ambergrease,  to  be  the  preternaturally 
hardened  dung  or  faeces  of  the  spermaceti  whale,  mixed 
with  some  indigestible  relics  of  its  food. 

The  colo’urs  of  Ambergrease  vary ;  there  is,  first,  the 
white  Ambergrease,  which  is  scarce  and  of  little  value ; 
as  it  seems,  either  not  to  be  ripe,  or  mixed  with  some 
heterogeneous  matter  ;  then,  the  ash  coloured  or  true  Am¬ 
bergrease  ;  afterwards  the  black  Ambergrease,  which  is 
inferior  to  the  preceding  sort,  and  frequently  adulterated  j 
lastly,  the  brown  Ambergrease,  which  has  a  particular, 
unpleasant  smell.  It  looks  mostly  sleek  or  ^nooth,  as  if 
covered  with  a  skin. 

Ambergrease  ought  to  be  chosen  in  large  pieces,  of  an 
agreeable  odour,  entirly  grey  on  the  outside,  and  grey 
with  little  black  spots  within.  The  purchaser  should  be 
extremely  cautious,  as  this  article  is  easily  counterfeited 
with  gums  and  other  drugs. 

Ambergrease  is  chiefly  found  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
on  the  sea  coast  of  Brasil,  of  the  East  Indies,  China,  Japan, 
and  the  Molucca  Islands.  But  most  of  the  Ambergrease 
brought  to  England,  comes  from  the  Bahama  Islands  and 
Providence. 

The  use  of  Ambergrease  is  now  nearly  confined  to  per¬ 
fumery;  it  was  formerly  recommended  in  medicine  by 
eminent  physicians.  In  Asia  and  part  of  Africa  it  is  also- 
used  as  a  spice  in  cookery. 


AMETHYST. 


F.  Amethysts. 

G.  Amethyst. 

D .  Amathist steen. 
1.  Anntista. 

S .  Ametisto. 


P.  Ametista,  Ametistc. 
DA.  A tnet i st. 

SW.  Ametist. 

L.  Amethystus. 


A  gem  of  a  purple  colour,  which  seems  composed  of  a 
strong  blue  and  a  deep  red,  and  according  as  either  of 


27 


those  prevails,  affording  different  tinges  of  purple,  some¬ 
times  approaching  to  violet,  and  sometimes  even  fading  to 
a  pale  rose  colour. 

Though  the  Amethyst  be  generally  of  a  purple  colour, 
it  is  nevertheless  found  sometimes  naturally  colourless,  and 
may  at  any  time  be  easily  made  so,  by  putting  it  into  the 
fire  ;  in  which  pellucid  or  colourless  state,  it  so  well  imi¬ 
tates  the  diamond,  that  its  want  of  hardness  seems  the 
only  way  of  distinguishing  it. 

The  Amethyst  is  scarcely  inferior  to  any  of  the  gems 
in  the  beauty  of  its  colour ;  and  in  its  purest  state  is  of 
the  same  hardness,  and  at  least  of  equal  value  with  the 
ruby  and  sapphire.  It  is  found  of  various  sizes,  from  the 
bigness  of  a  small  vetch,  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diame¬ 
ter,  and  often  to  much  more  than  that,  in  length. 

This  precious  stone  is  found  in  the  East  and  West  In¬ 
dies,  and  in  several  parts  of  Europe  ;  some  of  the  finest 
specimens  of  the  oriental  ones  being  so  hard  and  bright, 
as  to  equal  any  of  the  coloured  gems  in  value.  However, 
by  far  the  greater  number  of  Amethysts  fall  infinitely 
short  of  these,  as  all  the  European  ones,  and  not  a  few  of 
those  brought  from  the  East  and  West  Indies,  are  very 
little  harder  than  common  crystal. 

Counterfeit  Amethysts  come  from  France  and  Germany. 
They  are  spars  and  crystals,  and  even  tinged  glass. 


AMIANTHUS,  or  EARTH  FLAX. 


A  fibrous  flexile,  elastic,  mineral  substance,  consisting 
of  short,  abrupt,  and  interwoven  filaments.  It  is  found 
in  Germany,  in  the  strata  of  iron  ore,  sometimes  forming 
veins  of  an  inch  in  diameter  ;  also  in  Crete  and  Cyprus, 
in  Tartary,  Namur  in  the  low  countries,  in  the  old  Nori- 
cum,  in  Egypt,  in  the  mountains  of  Arcadia,  at  Puteoli 
in  Corsica,  Anglesey  in  Wales,  Aberdeenshire  in  Scot¬ 
land,  at  Montauban  in  France,  and  in  Siberia. 

The  Amianthus  may  be  split  into  threads  and  filaments, 
from  one  to  ten  inches  in  length,  very  fine,  brittle  yet 
somewhat  tractable,  silky,  and  of  a  greyish  colour.  The 
industry  of  mankind  has  found  the  piethod  of  employing 


28 


this  untoward  metal  for  the  manufacture  of  a  kind  of  linen, 
called  Asbestos.  It  has  the  wonderful  quality  of  being  un¬ 
consumable  in  fire,  which  only  serves  to  whiten  it.  The 
shorter  filaments  of  the  Amianthus,  that  separate  in  the 
washing  of  the  stone,  are  used  for  making  paper. 

The  method  of  making  Asbestos,  is  now  entirely  un¬ 
known  :  but  Bapt.  Porta  assures  us,  that  in  his  time,  the 
spinning  of  Asbestos  was  a  thing  known  to  every  one  at 
Venice.  This  kind  of  linen  was  chiefly  esteemed  among 
the  ancients,  being  held  equally  precious  with  the  richest 
pearls. 

AMMEOS  SEED,  TRUE  AMOMUM. 


F.  S emetic e  d'ammi. 

G.  Ammysamen ,  Amtney. 

D.  Amyxaad. 

I.  Amcos ,  Ammi . 

S.  Ameos,  Ammi . 

This  seed  comes  from  a  round  fruit,  about  the  size  of 
a  middling  grape  ;  containing  under  a  membranous  cover, 
a  number  of  small  rough  angular  seeds,  of  a  blackish 
brown  colour  on  the  outside,  and  whitish  within.  Ten  or 
twelve  of  these  fruits  grow  together  in  a  cluster.  The 
husks,  leaves,  and  stems  of  the  plant,  have  a  slight  grate¬ 
ful  smell,  and  a  moderately  warm,  aromatic  taste.  The 
seeds  freed  from  the  husks,  are  in  both  respects  much 
stronger  ;  their  smell  is  quick  and  penetrating,  their  taste 
pungent,  approaching  to  that  of  camphor.  Notwithstand¬ 
ing  Amomum  is  an  elegant  aromatic,  it  has  long  been  un¬ 
known  to  the  shops. 


P.  Ameesy  Ammio. 
DA.  Ammyfro . 

SW.  Ammifro . 

L.  Amomum  verum. 


AMOMI  SEED. 


F.  Amomes, 

G.  Amo  me  hen. 
D.  Amomizaad . 
I.  A  memo. 

S.  A  memo. 


P.  Amomo. 

DA.  Amcmfro. 

SW.  Amcmfro. 

L.  Amomum  vulgar e. 


These  are  brown  grains,  brought  from  the  East  Indies, 
of  a  hot  aromatic  smell  and  taste,  somewhat  resembling 


29 


that  of  cinnamon,  cloves  and  pepper.  They  are  of  the 
size  of  a  chick-pea,  and  grow  on  a  tree,  which  has  a  red 
coloured  odoriferous  wood,  and  bears  a  kind  of  berries  or 
pods  in  the  shape  of  grapes.  These  berries  contain  the 
seeds;  which  ought  to  be  light  coloured,  heavy,  and  well 
filled.  If  the  berries  are  light,  with  black  seeds  and  shri¬ 
velled,  they  are  of  no  value. 

These  seeds  are  only  used  in  medicine. 

AMPELITES,  cannel  or  candle  coal. 

A  hard,  opaque,  fossil,  inflammable  substance,  of  a 
black  colour.  Though  much  inferior  to  jet,  it  is  a  very 
beautiful  fossile,  and  for  a  body  of  so  compact  a  structure, 
remarkably  light.  There  is  a  large  quarry  of  it  near 
Alencon  in  France;  it  is  also  dug  in  many  parts  of  Eng¬ 
land,  and  the  finest  in  Lancashire  and  Cheshire.  It  makes 
a  very  brisk  fire,  flaming  violently  for  a  short  time,  and 
after  that  continuing  red  and  glowing  hot  for  a  long 
while.  It  is  capable  of  a  very  high  and  elegant  polish, 
and  in  the  countries  where  it  is  produced,  it  is  turned  into 
a  vast  number  of  toys.  It  is  likewise  used  for  dying  the 
hair  black. 


ANCHOVIES 


F.  Anchois. 

G.  Anscho<vis< 
D.  Ansjo~ois. 
L  Acciughe. 

S.  Anchor  as. 


P.  Anchor  as. 
DA.  Ansios. 


SW.  Ansjovis. 
R.  Antshofischi. 
L .  Encrasicoli. 


The  Anchovy  is  a  species  of  clupea,  with  the  upper  jaw 
longest.  It  is  so  much  like  the  common  sprat,  that  this 
fish  is  often  sold  under  its  name. 

Anchovies  are  fished  on  the  southern  coast  of  France, 
on  the  coasts  of  Italy,  and  other  parts  of  the  Mediterra¬ 
nean;  but  those  coming  from  Gorgona,  an  island  in  the 
sea  of  Tuscany,  are  esteemed  the  best.  Anchovies  should 
be  chosen  small,  fresh  pickled,  white  on  the  outside,  and 
red  within.  They  must  have  a  round  back,  for  those 


30 


which  are  flat  or  large,  are  often  nothing  but  Sardines.  The 
pickle  also,  on  opening  the  pots  or  barrels,  must  be  of  a 
good  taste,  and  not  have  lost  its  flavour. 

The  common  way  of  eating  Anchovies,  is  with  oil,  vi¬ 
negar,  &c  .or  they  are  made  into  a  sauce,  by  mincing  them 
with  pepper,  &c. 

ANCHUSA;  alkanet,  or  BUGLOSS. 


F.  VOrcanette . 

G.  Rot  he  Ocbsenzunge,  Or - 

kanet . 

D.  Ossetong ,  Orkanette . 

I.  Ancusa. 

S.  Arcaneta ,  Palomilla  ae 
Tinte . 


P.  Alcanna  bast ar da ,  Orca- 
neta. 

DA.  Oxetunge ,  Orkanette . 
SW.  Rod  Oxtungerot. 

POL.  Czcr<wieniec. 

R.  Wolowoi  jasuk . 

L.  Alcanna. 


Of  the  eight  species  of  this  plant,  we  only  enumerate 
two,  viz.  the  officinalis  or  greater  garden  bugloss,  and  the 
tinctoria,  or  true  alkanet.  The  former  grows  naturally  in 
France,  and  all  the  warmer  parts  of  Europe;  it  will  even 
thrive  well  enough  in  Great  Britain.  The  flowers  of  this 
species  have  obtained  the  name  of  cordial  flowers,  as  they 
moderately  cool  and  soften,  and  are  used  for  that  purpose 
in  medicine.  The  tinctoria  is  a  native  of  the  Levant,  but 
equally  hardy  with  the  former  species;  its  roots  are  used, 
on  account  of  their  red  colour,  as  a  colouring  ingredient 
for  ointments,  plasters,  &c.  The  colour  being  confined  to 
the  cortical  part,  the  small  roots  are  preferable. 


ANGELICA  ROOT. 


P.  Racine  dy  Angeli  pie. 

G.  Angelic awiirzel,  Engel- 
njcurz. 

D.  Angelica . 


I.  Angelica . 
S.  Anjelica . 
P.  Angelica. 
L.  Angelica . 


All  the  parts  of  the  Angelica  plant,  but  particularly  the 
root,  have  a  fragrant  aromatic  smell,  and  a  pleasant  bit¬ 
terish  warm  taste,  glowing  upon  the  lips  and  palate,  for  a 
long  time  after  they  have  been  chewed. 


31 


For  medicinal  use,  the  Angelica  coming  from  Bohemia 
and  Spain  is  reckoned  the  best.  The  roots  are  chiefly 
used  in  the  aromatic  tincture,  and  the  stalks  make  an 
agreeable  sweetmeat. 

Angelica  roots  are  apt  to  grow  mouldy,  and  be  preyed 
upon  by  insects,  unless  thoroughly  dried,  kept  in  a  dry 
place,  and  frequently  aired. 


ANISEED. 


F.  Anis. 

G.  Anis. 

D.  Anys. 

I.  Anice,  Anese. 
S.  Anis. 

P.  Anis ,  Anise . 


DA.  Anis . 
SW.  Anis. 
POL.  Anyz . 
R.  Anis. 

L.  Anisum. 


Aniseed  is  a  roundish  striated  seed,  flatted  on  one  side, 
and  pointed  at  one  end;  of  a  pale  colour  inclining  to  green; 
it  has  an  aromatic  smell,  and  a  pleasant  warm  taste,  ac¬ 
companied  with  a  degree  of  Sweetness.  It  is  the  seed  of 
the  pimpinella  anisum  or  common  Anise,  ai^  annual  plant, 
which  grows  naturally  in  Egypt,  but  is  cultivated  in  the 
southern  parts  of  Europe,  particularly  Malta  "and  Spain, 
from  whence  the  seed  is  imported  in  Great  Britain.  The 
smaller  kind,  brought  from  Spain  is  preferred. 

Aniseed  is  used  in  medicine  and  for  confectionary.  It 
gives  out  all  its  virtue  to  rectified  spirit,  which  becomes  of 
a  bright  lemon  color,  and  tastes  very  agreeably.  In  dis¬ 
tillation  it  gives  over  the  whole  of  its  flavour.  An  essential 
oil  arises  with  the  water,  in  a  considerable  quantity;  above 
an  ounce  having  been  extracted  from  three  pounds  of  the 
seed. 


ANNATTO,  anotta,  roucou. 


F.  Roucou^  Bichet. 

G.  Or  lean. 

D.  Orleaan ,  Rokce. 

I.  Orianat  Urianna ,  Urucu. 
S .  Achiote ,  A  shot  e,  Cocbebue, 
Orellana. 

P .  XJrucu ,  Oriana. 


DA-  Or  lean. 

SW.  Orleana. 

POL.  Orlean ,  Reku. 

R.  Or  lea,;. 

L.  Terra  Orleana ,  Orellana , 
Bixa. 


Annatto  is  a  red  colour,  formed  from  the  pellicles  or  pulp 
of  the  seeds  of  the  Bixa,  a  tree  common  in  South  America. 


The  Annatto  tree  has  a  reddish  bark,  and  large,  strong, 
and  hard  leaves,  of  a  dark  green  colour.  It  is  as  high  as  a 
plumb  tree,  and  more  bushy.  The  flowers  that  grow  in 
bunches,  not  unlike  wild  roses,  are  succeeded  twice  a  year 
by  pods,  as  prickly  aS  the  shell  of  a  chesnut,  but  smaller. 
They  contain  some  small  seeds  of  a  pale  red  colour,  and 
from  these  the  Annatto  is  prepared.  As  soon  as  one  of 
the  eight  or  ten  pods  that  grow  in  a  bunch,  opens  of  it¬ 
self,  ail  the  rest  may  be  gathered. 

The  seeds  cleared  from  the  pods,  are  then  steeped  in 
water,  for  seven  or  eight  days,  or  longer.  When  they 
begin  to  ferment,  the  seeds  ought  to  be  strongly  stirred 
and  bruised,  with  wooden  pestles,  to  promote  the  separa¬ 
tion  of  the  red  skins.  This  process  is  repeated  several 
times,  till  the  seeds  are  left  white.  The  liquor  passed 
through  close  cane  sieves,  pretty  thick,  of  a  deep  red  colour, 
and  a  very  bad  smell,  is  received  into  coppers.  In  boiling, 
it  throws  up  its  colouring  matter  to  the  surface,  in  form  of 
scum,  which  is  taken  off,  saved  in  large  pans,  and  after¬ 
wards  boiled  down  by  itself  to  a  due  consistence,  and  made 
up  while  soft,  into  balls  or  cakes  of  two  or  three  pounds 
weight. 

According  to  others,  Annatto  is  nothing  else,  but  the 
red  farina,  with  which  the  seeds  of  the  plant  are  covered, 
when  coming  out  of  the  pods;  and  the  process  for  pre¬ 
paring  the  dye,  simply  as  follows:  when  a  sufficient  quan¬ 
tity  of  the  seed  is  collected,  they  are  thrown  into  a  vessel, 
and  as  much  hot  water  poured  upon  them,  as  is  necessary 
to  suspend  the  red  farina,  which  is  gradually  washed  off 
the  seeds  with  the  hand  or  a  spoon.  When  the  seeds 
appear  quite  naked,  they  are  taken  out,  and  the  wash  is 
left  to  settle;  after  which  the  water  is  gently  poured  away, 
and  the  sediment  put  into  shallow  vessels,  to  be  dried  by 
degrees  in  the  shade;  and  after  acquiring  by  this  means, 
a  due  consistence,  it  is  made  into  balls  or  cakes,  and  set  to 
dry  thoroughly  in  an  airy  place,  until  perfectly  firm. 

The  Annatto  commonly  met  with  among  us,  is  mode¬ 
rately  hard  and  dry,  of  a  brown  colour  on  the  outside,  and 
a  dull  red  within^ 

It  is  used  as  an  ingredient  in  varnishes,  and  for  dying 
wool  and  silk.  It  is  also  esteemed  in  medicine. 


33 


F  Antimoine. 

G.  Antimoniumy  Spiessglass . 
D.  Spiesglas. 

L  Antimonio. 

S,  Antimonio. 

P.  Antimonio. 


DA.  Spidseglas . 
SW.  Spitsglas, 
POL.  Spiszg/as, 
R.  Antimonia. 
L.  Antimonium. 


This  semimetal,  when  pure  and  well  fused,  is  of  a  white 
shining  colour,  and  consists  of  laminae  applied  to  each 
other.  When  it  has  been  well  melted,  and  not  too  hastily 
cooled,  and  its  surface  is  not  touched  by  any  hard  body 
during  the  cooling,  it  exhibits  the  perfect  figure  of  a  star, 
consisting  of  many  radii  issuing  from  a  centre.  This  pro¬ 
ceeds  from  a  disposition  that  the  parts  of  this  metal  have 
to  arrange  themselves  in  a  regular  manner,  and  is  similar 
to  the  crystallization  of  salts. 

Regulus  of  Antimony,  is  moderately  hard;  but  like 
other  semimetals,  it  has  no  ductility,  and  breaks  in  small 
pieces  under  a  hammer.  It  loses  one  seventh  of  its  weight 
in  water.  The  action  of  air  and  water  destroys  its  lustre, 
but  does  not  rust  it  so  effectually  as  iron  or  copper.  It  is 
fusible  with  a  heat  sufficient  to  make  it  red  hot;  but  when 
heated  to  a  certain  degree,  it  fumes  continually,  and  is 
dissipated  in  vapours. 

There  are  different  methods  of  preparing  from  Anti¬ 
mony,  the  Regulus  of  Antimony;  but  all  of  them  consist 
merely,  in  separating  the  sulphur  which  this  mineral  con¬ 
tains,  and  which  is  united  with  the  Regulus.  It  is  plain, 
therefore,  that  Regulus  of  Antimony  may  be  made,  by 
the  addition  of  any  substance  to  crude  Antimony  in  fu¬ 
sion,  which  has  a  greater  attraction  for  sulphur,  than  the 
Regulus  itself  has. 

Regulus  of  Antimony  enters  into  the  compositions  for 
metallic  speculums  for  telescopes,  and  for  printing  types. 
It  is  also  the  basis  of  a  number  of  medicinal  preparations; 
but  many  of  these,  which  were  formerly  much  esteemed, 
are  found  to  be  either  inert,  uncertain,  or  dangerous  in 
their  operation,  so  that  the  only  two  preparations  now 
retained,  by  the  most  skilful  practitioners,  are  the  infusion 
of  glass  of  Antimony  in  wine,  and  emetic  tartar. 


34- 


AQUA  FORTIS. 


F.  Eau  forte. 

G.  Scheid-zuasser. 
D.  Slerkwater . 

I.  Acqua forte . 

S.  Agua  fuerte. 


DA.  Skedevatid,  Skew  and. 
SW.  Skedvattcn. 

POL.  Seravaser ,  Stycb^waser* 
R.  Wodka-krebkaja . 

L.  fertis. 


/ 


P.  ^#<2  forte. 

Aquafortis  is  a  nitrous  acid  of  a  certain  strength;  when 
concentrated  and  smoaking,  it  is  called  spirit  of  nitre.  The 
Aqua  fortis  used  by  dyers,  brass-founders,  &c.  is  not  only 
weaker  than  spirit  of  nitre,  but  contains  a  portion  of  vi¬ 
triolic  acid.  It  may  be  made,  by  distilling  crude  nitre  with 
calcined  vitriol,  equal  parts;  or  with  somewhat  more  than 
half  its  weight,  of  oil  of  vitriol;  or  by  mixing  one  part  of 
oil  of  vitriol,  with  nine  parts  of  pure  spirit  of  nitre.  Aqua 
fortis  therefore  is  a  mixture  of  the  vitriolic  and  nitrous 
acids. 


AQUA  REGIA. 


P.  Agua  regia  y  ou  regal. 
DA.  Konger  and. 

SW.  Kungsvatten. 

L.  Aqua  regia . 


Eau  regale . 

G.  Konigs<wasser. 

D.  Konings'water. 

I.  Acqua  regia. 

S.  Agua  rejia,  6  real. 


Aqua  regia  is  a  compound  of  nitrous  and  marine  acid, 
in  different  proportions,,  according  to  the  purport  for 
which  it  is  intended.  It  is  particularly  used  as  a  menstruum 
for  gold;  it  likewise  dissolves  all  other  metals,  except  silver. 


/ 


AQUA  VITiE;  SEE  BRANDY. 


ARCHILL  A;  see  orchellAc 


35 


ARGOL,  TARTAR. 


D.  Wyn  steen 
I.  Tar  taro. 
S.  Tar  taro. 


F.  Tartre. 


G.  Weinstein. 


DA.  Fin  steen. 
SW.  Fins  ten. 
POL.  Waystin. 


R.  Winnui  kamen. 
L.  Tartarus. 


P.  Tartaro . 

Argol  or  Tartar  is  a  substance  thrown  off  from  wine, 
after  it  is  put  into  casks  to  depurate.  The  more  Tartar 
is  separated,  the  more  smooth  and  palatable  is  the  wine. 
This  substance  forms  a  thick  hard  crust  on  the  sides  of  the 
casks:  and  as  part  of  the  fine  dregs  of  the  wine  adhere  1 6 
it,  the  Tartar  of  the  white  wines  is  of  a  greyish  white 
colour,  called  white  Argol;  and  that  of  red  wine  has  a  red 
colour,  and  is  called  red  Argol. 

When  separated  from  the  cask  in  which  it  is  formed, 
Argol  is  mixed  with  much  heterogeneous  matter;  from 
which,  for  the  purposes  of  medicine  and  chemistry,  it  re.- 
quires  to  be  purified.  This  purification  consists  in  first 
boiling  the  Argol  in  water,  filtrating  the  solution,  and 
allowing  the  salt  to  crystallize,  which  it  very  soon  does, 
as  it  requires  nearly  twenty  times  its  weight  of  water:  to 
dissolve  it.  The  crystals  of  Tartar  obtained  by  this  ope¬ 
ration,  are  far  from  being  perfectly  pure;  and  therefore 
they  are  again  boiled  in  water,  with  an  addition  of  clay, 
which  absorbs  the  colouring  matter;  and  thus  on  a  second 
crystallization,  a  very  pure  and  white  salt  is'  obtained. 
These  crystals  are  called  Cream  of  Tartar ,  and  are  com¬ 
monly  sold  under  that  name. 

Cream  of  Tartar  may  be  recomposed  in  the  following 
manner ;  upon  fixed  vegetable  alkali  pour  a  solution  of 
the  acid  of  Tartar;  and  continue  this,  till  the  effervescence 
is  over.  The  fluid  will  then  be  transparent;  but  if  more 
of  the  acid  is  added,  it  will  become  turbid  and  white,  and 
small  crystals  like  white  sand  will  be  formed  in  it.  These 
crystals  are  a  perfect  Cream  of  Tartar.  Argols  therefore 
consist  of  fixed  vegetable  alkali,  over  saturated  with  the 
pure  acid  of  Tartar,  and  joined  by  a  great  deal  of  earthly 
impurities  and  colouring  matter. 

The  white  Argol  is  preferable  to  the  red,  as  containing 
less  of  the  drossy  or  earthy  matter.  The  marks  of  good 


36 


Argol  of  either  kind,  are  its  being  thick,  brittle,  hard, 
brilliant,  and  little  earthy.  That  brought  from  Germany 
is  the  best,  on  account  of  being  taken  out  of  those  great 
tuns,  wherein  the  salt  has  time  to  come  to  its  consistence. 

Argol  is  of  considerable  use  among  dyers,  as  serving  to 
dispose  the  stuffs  to  take  their  colours  the  better. 

ARMENIAN  BOLE. 

G.  Armenia cher  Bolus ,  Rothstein. 

i  . 

Is  a  soft  bole  of  red  colour,  used  in  medicine.  An  in¬ 
durated  kind  of  this  affords  the  material  for  the  red  pencils. 

Bolus’s  or  Boles,  are  martial  clays,  containing  a  fine  and 
dense  clay  of  various  colours,  with  a  large  quantity  of  iron. 

The  Armenian  Bole  was  formerly  brought  from  Ar¬ 
menia,  but  is  now  found  also  in  several  parts  of  France 
and  Germany. 

ARMENIAN  STONE. 

G.  Blauer  Bolus . 

This  substance  is  improperly  called  a  stone,  being  no-, 
thing  else  than  an  ocherous  earth,  and  properly  called, 
Blue  Ochre .  It  is  a  very  valuable  substance,  in  painting 
being  a  bright  and  lively  blue.  It  easily  breaks  between 
the  fingers,  and  does  not  stain  the  hands.  It  is  of  a 
brackish  disagreeable  taste,  and  ferments  with  acids.  It  is 
a  very  scarce  fossiie,  and  was  in  so  high  esteem  as  a  paint 
amongst  the  Ancients,  that  counterfeits  were  continually 
attempted  to  serve  in  its  place. 

Though  in  but  small  quantities,  it  is  found  very  pure  in 
the  mines  of  Gosslar  in  Saxpny. 


ARRACK  or  RACK. 


F.  Arac . 

G.  Arracky  Rack . 
D-  Arak.  Rak. 

I.  Arac co. 

S.  A rak. 


P.  Araca ,  Oi  racas. 
DA.  Arrak. 

SW.  Arrack  % 

POL.  Arak. 

R.  Arak. 


Arrack  seems  to  be  a  general  name  amongst  the  In- 
diansj  for  spirituous  liquors  of  all  kinds.  According  to 


37 


Lockyer,  what  we  understand  by  Arrack,  is  a  spirit  pro¬ 
cured  by  distillation  from  a  vegetable  juice  called  toddy, 
which  flows  by  incision  out  of  the  cocoa  nut  tree.  Others 
are  of  opinion,  that  Arrack  is  a  spirit  obtained  by  distilla¬ 
tion  from  rice  or  sugar,  fermented  with  the  juice  of  cocoa 
nuts. 

This  seems  to  be  the  most  established  opinion,  and  that 
rice  is  the  principal  ingredient  from  which  this  spirit  is 
distilled,  of  three  different  degrees  of  strength,  in  large 
pans,  after  a  previous  fermentation  with  water,  treacle 
from  the  sugar  houses,  and  the  juice  of  the  cocoa  trees. 
The  weaker  sort  of  Arrack  is  drank  by  the  Chinese,  at 
their  merry  meetings.  The  white  Arrack,  which  is  im¬ 
mediately  bottled  off,  is  stronger,  and  used  chiefly  in  India. 
Arrack,  after  it  is  put  into  wooden  vessels  to  be  sent  to 
other  places,  acquires  a  colour  from  the  wood,  and  is  the 
brown  Arrack  commonly  sold  in  Europe. 

Goa  and  Batavia  are  the  chief  places  for  Arrack. 

Arrack  is  also  the  name  of  a  spirituous  liquor,  made  by 
the  Tartars,  of  mare’s-milk  left  to  sour,  and  then  twice  or 
thrice  distilled. 


ARROW-ROOT ;  see  Indian  Arrow-root. 


ARSENIC. 


F.  Arsenic,  Poudre  aux  rats. 

G.  Arsenik. 

D.  Arsenik ,  Rottekruid . 

I.  Arseni co. 

S.  Arseni  co. 

P.  Arseni  co. 


DA.  Arsenik ,  Rottekrud. 
SW.  Arsenik ,  Rotpuluer . 
POL.  Arsenik. 

R.  M'uscbjak. 

L.  Arsenicum. 


Late  experiments  have  made  it  evident,  that  white  Ar¬ 
senic  consists  of  an  acid  united  to  phlogiston ;  and  that,  by 
diminishing  the  ’atter,  the  acid  becomes  more  and  more 
apparent ;  while  on  the  contrary,  by  augmenting  the  quan¬ 
tity  of  phlogistic  matter,  the  Arsenic  assumes  the  metallic 
fprm,  and  is  called  Regulus  of  Arsenic.  In  our  systems 
of  chemistry,  it  is  reckoned  amongst  the  semimetals. 

Arsenic  in  its  pure  state,  is  a  most  destructive  and  deadly 
poison,  for  w  ich  the  art  of  medicine  has  scarcely  as  yet 


38 


afforded  a  .cure.  The  extreme  danger  attending  this  sub¬ 
stance,  when  taken  into  the  human  body,  arises  from  its 
insolubility,  and  the  difficulty  of  decompounding  it. 

Notwithstanding  the  dreadful  effects  of  Arsenic  wh$n 
taken  unprepared  in  large  quantities,  it  has  been  intro¬ 
duced  in  medicine  both  internally  and  externally.  1 
Besides  the  medicinal  use  of  Arsenic,  it  is,  but  too  fre¬ 
quently,  used  for  edulcorating  sour  wines.  ; 

Regulus  of  Arsenic  enters  into  the  composition  of 
Meuder’s  Phosphorus.  The  powder  of  the  calx  is  fre¬ 
quently  employed  in  glass  houses,  either  for  facilitating 
fusion,  for  acquiring  a  certain  degree  of  opacity,  or  for 
carrying  off  phlogiston.  In  painting  too,  the  artists  some¬ 
times  employ  Arsenic  5  it  is  used  for  the  preparation  of  a 
most  beautiful  green  pigment.  In  dying  it  is  likewise  of 
great  service,  and  in  cloth  printing  for  dissolving  indigo. 

Arsenic  is  found  in  a  metallic  shape  in  Bohemia,  Hun¬ 
gary,  Saxony,  Hercynia,  and  other  parts;  particularly  at 
St.  MarieuX  in  Alsatia. 


ASBESTOS;  see  Amianthus . 

ASHES 

Are  the  earthy  partieles  of  combustible  substances,  after 
they  have  been  burnt.  If  the  Ashes  are  produced  from 
vegetable  bodies,  they  contain  a  considerable  quantity  of 
fixed  salt,  blended  with  the  terrene  particles;  and  from 
these  Ashes,  the  fixed  alkaline  salts,  called  potashes,  pearl- 
ashes,  weedashes,  barilla,  &c.  are  extracted;  for  which,  see 
under  the  respective  heads. 


ASPHALTUM;  see  Bitumen  Judaic  urn. 

ASSA  DULC1S. 

A  name  sometimes  given  to  benzoin;  see  Qwn  Benjamin, 


39 


ASSA-FOETIDA. 


j  .  Asafetiday  Asse ,  Merde 


de  diable. 


P.  Assa  fetida. 
DA.  Dyaselsdrcek. 


<  t  •  Teufelsdreck . 

'  >.  Duivelsdreck. 

J  .  Assa fetida ,  Zajfetica . 
\  .  Asa  fetida . 


SW.  Dyfvelsirdik. 


POL.  Smroa'zieniec,  Czarzie 


laino. 

L.  Asa  feet  id  a. 


Assa  foetida  is  a  kind  of  gum,  of  very  offensive  smell, 
procured  from  the  root  of  a  plant  common  in  some  parts  of 
Persia,  and  called  there  hingesch.  The  leaves  are  of  a 
horribly  offensive  smell,  and  no  animal  will  touch  them. 
It  seldom  flowers,  sometimes  not  till  its  twentieth,  thir¬ 
tieth,  o?  fortieth  year;  during  all  this  time  the  root  is  in¬ 
creasing,  and  consequently,  sometimes  grows  to  an  enor¬ 
mous  bulk.  Roots  of  it  have  been  seen,  of  the  thickness 
of  a  man’s  thigh,  and  of  a  yard  and  a  half  in  length;  those 
of  the  thickness  of  an  arm  are  common.  ,  When  it  sends 
forth  a  stalk,  and  has  ripened  its  seed,  it  perishes.  The 
root,  within,  is  perfectly  white,  and  full  of  a  white,  milky, 
and  stinking  juice,  which  when  collected  and  dried,  is  our 
Assa  foetida.  They  never  make  incisions  in  roots  of  less 
than  four  or  five  years  standing,  and  the  older  and  larger 
the  root,  the  more  plentifully  the  juice  flows. 

The  most  strongly  scented  Assa  foetida  is  always  the 
best ;  and  Kaempfer  observes,  that  it  is  so  much  stronger 
when  fresh,  than  when  kept  and  imported  into  Europe, 
that  a  drachm  of  it  has  more  scent,  than  an  hundred 
weight  of  what  pur  druggists  keep. 

It  is  by  much  the  strongest  of  the  deobstruent  w^rm 
gums,  acting  frequently  as  an  antispasmodic  and  an  ano¬ 
dyne. 


AVIGNON  BERRIES;  see  Yellow  berries. 


AZURE;  see  Smalts . 


AZURE  OF  COPPER;  see  Copper . 


AZURE  STONE;  see  Lapis  lazuli. 


•  '■« 

•  •,  '  *  'W 

....  -  j  a 

’-•■yf. f-A. 


.r 

, 


!  .  ..V,' 


rtr.  \  ;  /dr; . 

•  ..y<tx\  \'y  ■  ■<  j  •  f.;e.d  ' 


.1  ' ■  :j:  '.  ?3ul% .  •  •*. 


•  VK'.' .  r 


-  -- *C$TT 

•  J  W-'  ' 


*  *  '  ’  '  ■  - 


v  -<■ 


■yA  :\  :\t 


’  .•  ■  A  ,  ■  •  V-- 

v. . .  .>  •  sh{  rr  \%oo 


.1 


. .  .  \  x 

-.  .'  :•  Huii't 


:•  rL-'t 

■ 

' 


' 

- 


'  A'*" 


.  r>y 


•  -  .VVC  - 


■ 


41 


BALSAM. 


F.  Baame. 

G.  Balsam. 
D.  Balsem. 
1.  Balsamo. 
S.  Balsamo. 


DA.  Balsam. 
SW.  Balsam. 
POL.  Balsam. 
R.  Bah  am. 


L.  Balsamum. 


P.  Balsamo . 

Balsam  implies  an  oily,  resinous,  liquid  substance,  flow¬ 
ing  either  spontaneously,  or  by  means  of  incision,  from 
certain  plants.  There  are  a  great  variety  of  Balsams,  ge¬ 
nerally  denominated  from  the  substances  from  which  they 
are  obtained,  whereof  the  principal  ones  deserve  to  be 
enumerated. 


BALSAM  CAPIVI,  or  copaiba 


Which  comes  from  Brasil  and  Guinea,  in  earthen  bot¬ 
tles,  is  of  two  sorts;  the  one  bright  and  thin,  the  other 
thick;  the  first  being  white,  of  a  thinner  consistence  than 
the  common  turpentine,  but  much  more  fragrant  and  de¬ 
tersive;  the  other  inclining  to  yellow. 

Both  sorts  pass  away  quickly  by  urine,  and  have  there¬ 
fore  chiefly  been  prescribed  in  complaints  of  the  urinary 
passage;  though  now  they  are  not  so  much  in  use. 


BALSAM  OF  GILEAD, 


Called  also  Balsamum  Judaicum ,  Syriacum ,  Mecca  and 
Opobalsamum. 

It  is  admitted,  even  by  the  Turks,  that  on  account  of  the 
great  price  of  Balsam  of  Gilead,  it  is  very  difficult  to  find 
this  commodity  genuine;  it  being  adulterated  immediately 
on  its  filtration  from  the  tree,  and  scarcely  to  be  found 
pure  any  where,  but  in  the  possession  of  the  Turkish  Em¬ 
peror  and  the  Grandees  of  the  Empire,  Who  get  it  as  a 
valuable  present  from  some  traveller. 


F 


t 


42 


The  marks  of  its  supposed  purity  are:  a  very  yellow 
colour,  perfectly  transparent;  a  strong  fragrant  smell,  with 
something  of  the  lemon  or  citron  flavour;  and  a  bitter, 
sharp,  and  astringent  taste.  It  is  also  very  tenacious  and 
glutinous,  sticking  to  the  fingers,  and  may  be  drawn  into 
long  threads.  The  way  of  trying  Balsam  of  Gilead,  at 
Cairo  and  Mecca,  is  as  follows:  they  let  fall  a  drop  of  the 
Balsam  into  a  cupful  of  clear  cold  water,  if  this  drop  re¬ 
mains  in  one  place  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  the  Balsam 
is  of  little  value;  but  if  it  instantly  extends  itself,  like  a 
skin  or  pellicle,  over  the  whole  surface,  and  this  skin  is 
even  and  clear,  and  may  be  taken  off  the  water  with  a 
hair,  silk,  or  thread,  leaving  it  as  clear,  as  it  was  before, 
then  it  is  a  sign,  that  the  Balsam  is  of  the  best  kind,  and 
not  adulterated. 

The  Balsam  of  Gilead  principally  comes  from  Arabia 
Petrea,  and  the  Arabians  carry  it  to  Mecca,  and  sell  it 
there,  during  the  time  of  the  stay  of  the  caravans  from 
Egypt  and  Turkey.  It  also  grows  in  Palest ina,  but  re¬ 
quires  the  greatest  care  there,  to  prevent  it  from  degene¬ 
rating,  whereas  in  Arabia  it  grows  without  cultivation.  It 
is  the  produce  of  a  species  of  amyris,  rising  to  the  height 
of  the  promegranate  tree,  to  which  it  has  a  great  resem¬ 
blance,  both  in  its  long  branches  and  flowers.  The  wood 
is  red  and  gummy,  and  its  fruit  is  a  small  nut,  covered 
with  a  dry  and  brown  pellicle,  which  contains  a  kernel.  In 
the  months  of  June,  July,  and  August,  the  Arabs  make  a 
slight  incision  in  it,  from  which  there  distils  a  kind  of 
viscous  juice,  called  Gpobalsarnum.  The  juice  extracted 
from  its  fruit  is  called  Carpobalsamum,  and  that  from  the 
wood  Xilobalsamum.  The  Opobalsamum  is  the  most  per¬ 
fect  part;  it  is  white  when  it  comes  from  the  tree,  then 
turns  green,  and  afterwards  to  a  gold  colour;  but  as  it 
grows  old,  it  becomes  a  little  tarnished,  and  in  the  end 
assumes  the  appearance  of  honey.  Its  smell,  though  strong, 
is  agreeable;  and  it  thickens  like  the  turpentine  of  Cyprus. 
The  Opobalsamum  coming  to  us  from  Arabia,  is  frequently 
mixed  with  this  turpentine. 

There  is  likewise  a  sort  of  Balsam  of  Mecca>  a  white 
balsam,  or  dry  white  gum,  resembling  copperas,  especially 
when  old;  which  has  all  the  virtues  of  the  Balm  of  Gilead 
or  Judea;  from  whence  it  is  conjectured  to  be  the  same, 
only  hardened  and  altered  in  colour. 


43 


Balsam  of  Gilead  is  used  in  medicine,  to  open  obstruc¬ 
tions  of  the  lungs,  as  a  stomachic,  and  also  externally  for 
curing  wounds,  &c.  The  Turkish  women  employ  it  as  a 
cosmetic. 


BALSAM  OF  MECCA  5  see  Balsam  of  Gilead. 


BALSAM  OF  PERU. 

This  Balsam  is  extracted  from  a  shrub  called  myroxylon 
peruiferum,  a  native  of  Peru,  and  the  wanner  parts  of 
America;  and  the  way  of  extracting  it,  is  said  to  be,  by 
decoction  in  water.  This  Balsam,  as  brought  to  us,  is 
nearly  of  the  consistence  of  thin  honey,  of  a  reddish  brown 
colour,  inclining  to  black,  an  agreeable  aromatic  smell,  and 
a  very  hot  biting  taste.  There  is  another  sort  of  Balsam 
of  Peru,  of  a  white  colour,  and  considerably  more  fragrant 
than  the  former.  This  is  very  rarely  brought  to  us.  It  is 
said  to  be  the  produce  of  the  same  plant,  which  yields  the 
common  or  black  Balsam,  and  to  exude  from  incisions 
made  in  the  trunk,  while  the  former  is  obtained  by  boil¬ 
ing.  There  is  also  a  third  kind,  commonly  called  the  red 
or  dry.  This  is  supposed  to  obtain  a  different  state  from 
the  white,  merely  in  consequence  of  the  treatment  to 
which  it  is  subjected,  after  it  is  got  from  the  tree.  It  is 
almost  as  fragrant  as  the  Balsam  of  Gilead.  It  is  very  sel¬ 
dom  to  be  met  with  in  Great  Britain. 

Balsam  of  Peru  is  a  very  warm  aromatic  medicine,  con¬ 
siderably  hotter  and  more  acrid  than  copaiva. 

BALSAM  OF  TOLU 

Is  obtained  from  the  Toluifera  balsamum,  or  Balsam  of 
Tolu  tree,  which  grows  in  Spanish  America,  in  the  pro¬ 
vince  of  Tolu,  behind  Carthagena,  whence  we  are  supplied 
with  it,  made  up  in  little  gourd -shells.  It  is  procured  by 
making  incisions  in  the  bark  of  the  tree,  and  is  collected 
into  spoons  made  of  black  wax,  from  which  it  is  poured 
into  proper  vessels. 


44 


This  Balsam  is  of  a  reddish  yellow  colour  and  transpa¬ 
rent,  in  consistence  thick  and  tenacious;  by  age  it  grows 
so  hard  and  brittle,  that  it  may  be  rubbed  into  a  powder 
between  the  finger  and  thumb.  Its  smell  is  extremely 
fragrant,  somewhat  resembling  that  of  lemons;  its  taste  is 
warm  and  sweetish,  and  on  being  chewed,  it  adheres  to 
the  teeth.  Thrown  into  the  fire,  it  immediately  liquifies, 
takes  flame,  and  disperses  its  agreeable  odour.  Though  it 
does  not  dissolve  in  water,  yet  if  boiled  in  it  for  two  or 
three  hours  in  a  covered  vessel,  the  water  receives  its 
odoriferous  smell.  Water  also  suffers  a  similar  impreg¬ 
nation  from  the  Balsam  by  distillation.  With  the  assist¬ 
ance  of  mucilage,  it  unites  with  water,  so  as  to  form  a 
milky  solution.  It  dissolves  entirely  in  spirit  of  wine,  and 
easily  mixes  with  distilled  oils,  but  less  easily  with  those 
of  the  expressed  kind. 

This  Balsam  possesses  the  same  general  virtues  with  the 
Balsam  of  Gilead,  and  that  of  Peru;  it  is  however  less 
heating  and  stimulating. 


BAMBOE,  Bambou  or  Bamboos . 


F.  Bambous ,  Bamboucs , 

Bamboihes. 

G.  Bambus. 

D.  Bamboesrieten . 

I.  Bambu. 


S,  Bambu. 

P .  Bamhu 
DA.  Bambusror. 

SW.  Bambos,  Bamboror. 
L.  Arundo  Batnbos. 


This  is  a  plant  growing  in  the  East  Indies,  which  mul¬ 
tiplies  very  much  by  its  root,  from  which  springs  a  branchy 
tuft,  after  the  manner  of  the  European  reeds.  It  is  of  the 
largest  kind  of  cane,  and  decreases  gradually  to  the  top, 
where  it  bears  a  blossom  like  our  reeds,  being  the  only 
kind  of  grass  that  grows  to  the  size  of  a  tree. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  useful  plants  to  the  Indians,  as 
they  make  almost  every  thing  of  it,  they  want.  With  it 
they  build  houses;  they  make  chairs,  tables,  bedsteads, 
ladders,  also  vessels  and  household  utensils  of  it:  which 
are  light,  strong,  and  neat. 

Large  quantities  are  annually  brought  to  Europe, 


45 


BARILLA. 


F.  Soude,  Barille. 

G.  Soda,  Barilla. 

D.  Souda. 

I.  Soda ,  Barriglia. 

S.  Sosa ,  Soda ,  Barrilla. 


P.  So  Ida ,  Barr  ilb  a. 
DA.  Soda. 

SW.  Souda ,  Soda. 
R.  Solianka . 


Barilla  is  produced,  by  the  incineration  of  different  sea 
plants,  chiefly  in  Spain  and  Italy,  where  whole  fields  are 
sowed  with  them  by  the  farmers,  to  good  advantage. 
From  this  impure  and  mixed  mass  of  cinders,  is  obtained 
the  marine  alkali. 

They  prepare  Barilla  in  Spain  and  Italy  from  the  plants 
called,  salicornia  herbacea,  and  salicornia  fruticosa;  and  in 
Spain  sometimes  also  from  the  chenopodium  maritimum, 
and  the  batis  maritima.  In  France  and  other  parts,  this 
article  is  obtained  from  the  fucus  vesiculosus  and  from  the 
salsola  soda.  The  Saracens  in  Spain,  called  the  plant 
which  they  used  for  the  preparation  of  their  Barilla, 
kali 5  which  with  the  addition  of  the  Arabian  article,  has 
given  rise  to  the  name  alkali. 

The  discovery  of  the  use  of  these  plants,  seems  to  be  a 
present  of  the  Saracens  to  the  Europeans,  for  no  mention 
is  made  of  it,  before  the  Mahometan  sera.  The  Ancients 
seem  to  be  silent  on  that  head. 

The  manner  of  preparing  these  ashes,  usually  is  thus : 
when  the  plant  has  attained  its  full  height,  they  cut  it 
down  and  let  it  dry,  afterwards  they  burn  and  calcine  it 
in  certain  pits,  like  lime  kilns,  dug  in  the  ground  for  that 
purpose,  which  are  covered  up  with  earth,  so  that  no  air 
may  come  at  the  fire.  The  matter  by  this  means  is  not 
only  reduced  into  ashes,  but  by  means  of  the  salt  juices 
united  into  a  hard  substance,  which  they  break  out  of  the 
pits  with  hammers. 

Our  market  is  supplied  with  Barilla,  chiefly  from  Ali- 
cant  and  Carthagena  in  Spain,  from  the  island  of  Tene- 
riffe,  and  from  Sicily.  The  Spanish  Barilla  is  reckoned 
the  best ;  and  among  the  Sicily  Barilla,  the  preference  is 
given  to  the  produce  of  Utica,  then  comes  that  of  Tra¬ 
pani,  then  Catanea,  Marsala,  &c. 

In  Sicily,  the  first  crop  of  these  herbs  is  cut  in  Septem¬ 
ber  and  October;  and  they  make  a  second  crop  about  the 


46 


end  of  November;  but  this  second  crop  produces  an  infe¬ 
rior  kind  of  Barilla. 

In  shipping  Barilla,  particular  attention  should  be  paid, 
to  have  as  little  small  or  dust  as  possible ;  as  in  the  latter 
state  it  is  most  exposed  to  the  access  of  air,  which  de¬ 
stroys  its  virtue.  The  marine  alkali  however,  is  less  sub¬ 
ject  to  attract  humidity,  than  the  vegetable  alkali,  like  pot 
and  pearl  ashes,  which  can  only  be  preserved  when  closely 
packed  in  casks.  The  usual  assortment,  in  which  Barilla 
is  sold  in  Sicily,  consists  of  two  thirds  large  lumps,  one 
sixth  small  lumps,  and  one  sixth  dust.  It  answers  best, 
not  to  ship  any  dust,  but  to  resell  it  at  half  price. 

Prime  quality  in  Barilla  is  to  be  distinguished,  by  its 
strong  smell,  when  wetted  with  the  spittle,  and  by  its 
whitish  color.  If  the  lumps  are  hard,  it  shews  they  are 
fresh. 

Barilla  is  used  by  glassmakers,  soapboilers,  bleachers, 
and  other  manufacturers. 


BARK 

Is  the  exterior  part  of  trees,  serving  them  for  a  skin  or 
covering;  of  which  there  are  a  great  many  kinds  in  use  in 
the  several  arts;  some  in  medicine,  as  Jesuits  bark;  others 
in  dying,  as  the  bark  of  the  Alder  and  Quercitron  bark; 
others  in  grocery,  as  cinnamon  and  cassia  lignea ;  the  bark 
of  oak,  in  tanning;  the  bark  of  the  cork  tree,  for  corks ; 
that  of  the  linden  tree,  for  a  kind  of  cordage;  and  the 
bark  of  a  sort  of  birch  tree,  is  used  by  the  Indians  for 
canoes,  capable  of  holding  twenty-four  persons.  In  the 
East  Indies,  they  also  manufacture  the  bark  of  a  particular 
tree,  into  a  kind  of  stuff  or  cloth.  It  is  spun  and  dressed 
much  after  the  manner  of  hemp,  and  the  manufacture 
called  pinasses  and  biambonnes. 

Oak  bark,  independent  of  its  use  in  tanning  leather,  for 
which  also  oak  sawdust  has  of  late  been  substituted,  is 
employed  by  the  Highlanders,  to  dye  their  yarn  of  a 
brown,  or  mixed  with  copperas,  of  a  black  colour. 


47 


BARLEY. 


I.  Orzo. 

S.  Cebada. 


F.  Orge. 

G.  Gerste. 


D.  Gersit  Gant. 


DA.  Byg. 

S  W.  B iugg ,  Kern. 
FOL  Jecymien. 
R.  Jatschmen . 

L.  Hordeujn . 


p.  Cevada,  Se<vada. 


The  principal  use  of  Barley  among  us,  is  for  making 
beer.  In  Scotland,  Barley  is  a  common  ingredient  for 
broths.  In  Spain  they  feed  the  horses  with  Barley.  Pearl 
Barley ,  and  French  Barley ,  are  Barley  freed  of  the  husk  by 
a  mill;  the  distinction  between  the  two  being,  that  pearl 
barley  is  reduced  to  the  size  of  a  small  shot,  all  but  the 
very  heart  of  the  grain  being  ground  away. 


BASALTES, 


Is  a  heavy  hard  stone,  chiefly  black  or  green,  consisting 
of  prismatic,  the  number  of  whose  sides  is  uncertain. 

The  most  remarkable  property  of  this  substance,  is  its 
figure :  being  never  found  in  strata,  like  other  marbles,  but 
always  standing  up  in  the  form  of  regular  pillars. 

Basaltes  is  frequently  met  with,  in  Spain,  Russia,  Po¬ 
land,  near  Dresden,  and  in  Slesia;  but  the  most  noble 
store  in  the  world,  seems  to  be  that  of  the  Giant’s  Cause¬ 
way  in  Ireland,  and  StafFa,  one  of  the  Western  Islands  of 
Scotland.  Great  quantities  are  likewise  found,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  mount  Etna  in  Sicily,  of  Hecla  in  Ice¬ 
land,  and  of  the  volcano  in  the  island  of  Bourbon. 

Much  has  been  disputed  about  the  nature  of  Basaltes. 
Sir  William  Hamilton  contends  in  support  of  its  volcanic 
origin;  Mr.  Bergman  is  of  opinion,  that  both  Are  and 
water  contributed  to  produce  it. 

Some  of  the  Ancients  call  this  stone  lapis  Lydius,  from 
Lydia,  where  probably  it  was  found  in  abundance. 

The  Moderns  denominate  it  the  touch  stone,  being  used 
for  the  trial  of  gold  and  silver.  The  Romans,  Grecians, 
and  chiefly  the  Egyptians,  made  most  of  their  statues  of 
Basaltes.  See  also  Marble . 


BATH  STONE, 


Has  its  name  from  the  city  of  Bath,  most  of  the  beau¬ 
tiful  buildings  of  that  place  being  erected  with  it.  It  is 
not  so  white  and  hard  as  Portland  stone,  but  as  it  is  easy 
to  be  wrought  with  edged  tools,  and  fashioned  for  all  the 
ornamental  parts  of  architecture,  statuary,  &c.  it  is  sent  to 
all  parts  of  England. 

This  stone  is  dug  out  of  the  quarries  upon  Charlton- 
down,  and  brought  from  thence  down  a  steep  hill,  by  a 
four-wheeled  carriage,  cf  a  particular  structure.  The 
wheels  are  of  cast  iron,  broad  and  low,  with  a  grove  in  the 
perimeter,  to  keep  them  on  the  pieces  of  wood,  on  which 
the  carriage  moves  down  hill,  with  four  or  five  tons  weight 
of  stone,  very  easily,  and  without  the  help  of  horses.  The 
motion  is  moderated  by  means  of  a  friction  lever,  bearing 
more  or  less  on  the  hinder  wheel,  as  occasion  requires. 

Great  quantities  of  the  stone  dug  out  of  those  quarries, 
are  sent  by  the  Avon  to  Bristol,  and  from  thence  to  Lon¬ 
don. 

BEADS;  GLASS  BEADS. 

F.  Verroterie ,  Rassade,  Ro~ 

caille. 

G.  Glasperlen ,  Glaskor alien. 

D .  V enetianse  paarlen. 

I .  Coni  aria ,  Margheritine . 

S.  Abalorios,  Rocalla ,  Vi- 

~  drier ia. 

Beads  are  small  globules  or  balls,  chiefly  used  for  neck¬ 
laces;  and  made  of  pearl,  steel,  garnet,  coral,  diamond, 
amber,  crystal,  paste,  glass,  & c.  There  is  a  considerable 
trade,  chiefly  of  coral,  amber,  and  glass  beads,  carried  on 
with  the  savages  of  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  the  East  India 
Islands.  The  Roman  Catholics  make  great  use  of  beads, 
in  rehearsing  their  Ave  Marias;  and  the  like  usage  is  also 
found  among  the  dervishes  and  other  religions  of  the  East. 


P.  Missanga ,  V eloriosy  Jljo- 
far  Rocalha. 

DA.  Glaskor aller,  Glasperler . 
SW.  Glasparlor. 

POL.  Koralki  sklane. 

R.  Bisseri  dekui. 


BEAR  SKINS;  see  Furs. 


49 

BEAVER  SKINS;  see  Furs. 
BEER. 


F.  Bier e. 

G.  Bier. 

D.  Bier. 

I.  Birr  a,  Ceroogia. 
S.  Cer-veza . 

P.  Cer<veja. 


BA.  Oel,  Oell. 
SW.  Oel. 

POL.  Pirco. 

R.  Pirco. 

L.  Cerevisia. 


Beer  is  a  spirituous  liquor,  made  with  the  addition  of 
hops,  from  farinaceous  grains,  by  decoction  and  fermen¬ 
tation. 

Barley  is  generally  used  for  making  Beer,  sometimes 
also  wheat,  and  even  oats  and  rye.  In  North  America 
they  brew  Beer  from  maize. 

The  invention  of  brewing  Beer  is  very  old,  but  not  so 
old  as  that  of  preparing  wine.  According  to  Diodor, 
Osiris’s  Beer  was  so  good,  that  it  was  little  inferior  to 
wine,  with  respect  to  taste  as  well  as  strength.  The  An¬ 
cients  were  strangers  to  the  use  of  hops. 

The  chief  sorts  of  Beer  in  Great  Britain,  of  which  con¬ 
siderable  quantities  are  annually  exported,  are  Ale  and 
Porter. 

Among  the  different  sorts* of  Beer  brewed  abroad,  the 
most  famous  are :  the  Broihan  made  at  Hanover  and  Got¬ 
tingen;  the  Bruns'wic  Mumme;  the  Bremer  Acht-groten; 
the  Dantzig  Spruce  beer>  &e. 


BEES-WAX;  see  Wax. 
BELL-METAL;  see  Copper . 

BERLIN  BLUE;  see  Prussian  Blue. 

BERYL. 

F.  Peril. 

G.  Beryll. 

D.  Bcrylsteen. 

I.  Btrillo. 

S.  Berilo. 

Beryl  is  a  pellucid  gem  of  a  bluish  green  colour,  found 
m  the  East  Indies,  and  about  the  gold  mines  in  Perm 


P .  Berillo 
DA.  Beryl. 

SW.  Beryl. 

L.  Aqua  marina. 


50 


There  are  also  some  coming  from  Silesia,  but  they  are 
oftener  coloured  *  crystals,  than  real  Beryls,  and  always 
much  inferior  to  the  East  Indian  and  Peruvian  kind. 

The  Beryl  in  its  perfect  state,  approaches  to  the  hard¬ 
ness  of  the  garnet;  and  its  size  is  from  that  of  a  small  tare 
to  that  of  a  pea,  a  horse  bean,  or  even  a  wallnut. 


BEZOAR,  BEZOARD. 

§ 

F.  Bezoard. 

G.  Bezoar. 

D.  Bezoarsteen, 

I.  Betzuqr >  Bezzuarro. 

S.  Bezar ,  Bezoar. 

P.  Bazar. 

Bezoar  is  a  general  name,  in  natural  history  and  medi¬ 
cine,  for  antidotes,  or  substances  to  prevent  the  effects  of 
poison. 

The  Bezoar  is  a  calculous  concretion,  found  in  the  sto¬ 
mach  of  certain  animals  of  the  goat  kind.  It  is  composed 
of  concentrical  coats  surrounding  one  another,  with  a 
small  cavity  in  the  middle,  containing  a  bit  of  wool,  straw, 
hair,  or  a  similar  substance/ 

The  Oriental  Bezoar,  brought  from  Persia  and  the  East 
Indies,  is  the  best  sort;  it  has  a  shining,  dark,  green,  or 
olive  colour,  and  an  even  smooth  surface.  On  removing 
the  outward  coat,  that  which  lies  underneath  appears 
likewise  smooth  and  shining. 

The  Occidental  Bezoar,  brought  from  the  Spanish  West 
Indies,  has  a  rough  surface  and  less  of  a  green  colour  than 
the  Oriental.  It  is  likewise  much  heavier,  more  brittle, 
and  of  a  looser  texture.  The  Occidental  is  generally  less 
than  a  wallnut;  the  Oriental  most  part  larger,  and  some¬ 
times  as  big  as  a  goose  egg. 

A  great  many  of  the  stones  sold  under  the  name  of 
Bezoar,  are  artificial  compositions.  The  common  mark 
of  the  goodness  of  this  stone,  is  its  striking  a  deep  green 
colour  on  white  paper,  that  has  been  rubbed  with  chalk. 

Bezoar  in  medicine,  can  only  be  considered  as  an  ab¬ 
sorbent. 


DA  Bezoar . 

SW.  Bezoar. 

POL  Bezoar  hamien . 
R.  Besoar. 

L.  Bezoar. 


51 


German  Bezoar,  is  said  to  be  found  in  the  stomach  of 
the  chamois,  a  sort  of  wild  goat,  and  supposed  only  to  be 
the  hair  of  that  animal,  licked  off  by  the  tongue,  and  by 
its  impregnation  with  the  saliva,  condensed  into  balls, 
which  are  used  sometimes  in  medicine,  but  chiefly  to 
make  a  yellow  colour  for  painters  in  miniature, 

BICE;  see  Copper . 


BISMUTH,  TIN  GLASS, 


F.  Bismuth . 

G.  Wissmuth. 

D.  Bismuth ,  Bergsteen. 

I.  Bismutte. 

S.  Bismuth ,  Piedrainga. 
P.  Bi  smut  ho. 


DA.  Vi  smut. 

SW.  Vi  smut. 

POL.  Markazft  cyno*wy 
R.  Wismut. 

L.  Bi  smut  hum. 


Bismuth  is  a  semimetal,  of  a  reddish  or  yellowish  white 
colour,  a  lamellated  texture,  moderately  hard,  and  brittle. 
It  is  the  heaviest  of  all  semimetals,  its  speficic  gravity 
being  nearly  as  that  of  silver,  viz.  ten  times  heavier  than 
water.  It  has  no  degree  of  malleability,  breaking  under 
the  hammer,  and  being  reducible  by  trituration  to  a  fine 
powder.  It  melts  a  little  later  than  tin,  and  is  about  as 
fusible  as  lead.  It  seems  to  flow  the  thinnest  of  all  me¬ 
tallic  substances. 

This  semimetal  is  chiefly  found  in  Germany  and  in 
Norway.  It  is  employed  by  pewterers,  to  communicate 
hardness  to  tin,  and  may  be  used  instead  of  lead  in  the 
cupellation  of  metals.  It  resembles  lead  in  many  respects, 
and  is  thought  to  be  dangerous  when  taken  internally. 
Most  metallic  substances  unite  with  Bismuth,  and  are 
thereby  rendered  more  fusible;  hence  it  is  used  in  the 
making  of  solder,  printers  types,  &c.  as  well  as  pewter. 

The  calx  of  Bismuth  is  said  to  promote  the  vitrification 
of  earths,  and  of  the  refractory  metallic  calces,  more  pow¬ 
erfully  than  lead;  and  likewise  to  act  as  a  more  violent 
corrosive  on  crucibles,  than  the  glass  of  lead  itself.  Hence 
it  is  preferable  to  lead  in  the  purification  of  gold  and  sil¬ 
ver,  destroying  more  effectually  the  baser  metals  with 
which  they  have  been  adulterated. 


52 


This  semimetal  is  most  commonly  lodged  in  cobalt  ores; 
which,  when  of  a  high  red,  or  peach  bloom  colour,  are 
called  bismuth  bloom ,  or  flowers  of  bismuth .  A  tincture 
drawn  from  the  ore  with  aquafortis,  and  this  afterwards 
mixed  with  a  saturated  solution  of  sea  salt,  and  inspissated, 
yields  a  reddish  salt;  the  watery  solution  of  which  is  the 
green  sympathetic  ink.  The  characters  written  with  this  ink, 
disappear  as  soon  as  dry,  but  on  holding  the  paper  to  the 
fire,  they  become  green  and  legible. 

BISTRE. 

F  Bidauft,  Bistre. 

G.  Bister y  Russ-sihwarze. 

Is  the  burnt  oil  extracted  from  the  soot  of  wood.  It  is 
of  a  brown  transparent  colour,  having  much  the  same  ef¬ 
fect  in  water  painting,  where  alone  it  is  used,  as  brown 
pink  in  oil.  Though  this  color  is  much  valued,  yet  it  is 
not  in  general  use  in  this  country,  perhaps  on  account  of 
its  not  being  easily  procured  of  a  perfect  kind.  The  best 
is  that  procured  from  France.  Dry  beech  "wood  affords 
the  best  soot  for  making  it. 

The  goodness  of  Bistre  may  be  perceived,  by  its  warm 
deep  brown  colour  and  transparency,  when  moistened  with 
water. 


BITUMEN  JUDAICUM,  jews  titch. 


F.  Asphalte ,  Bitume  defudee. 

G.  jf udenpech* 

I).  'Jodenly  m. 

I.  Asfalto ,  Bitume  giudaico . 
S.  Asfalto ,  Betun  judaico. 

P.  Asphalto ,  Betume  judaico. 


DA.  Jodebeeg,  Jedelum. 
SW.  Judebeck. 

POL.  Kleij  ziemsky 
R.  Asfalt,  Jidowskaia  smola. 
L.  Asphaltuniy  Bitumen  ju- 
daicum . 


This  is  a  kind  of  pitch,  which  may  be  found  floating  on 
the  waters  of  the  Dead  Sea,  or  lake  Asphaltites,  like  large 
lumps  of  earth;  and  which,  being  driven  by  the  winds  to 
the  eastern  and  western  shores,  adheres  to  them.  It  is  .then 
collected  by  the  Arabs,  and  divided  between  them,  and 
the  Bashaw  of  Damascus,  who  purchases  their  share  of  it* 


58 


for  some  pieces  of  money,  or  such  stuffs  as  they  use  for 
clothing. 

This  Bitumen  is  a  sulphureous  substance,  mixed  with 
salt,  which  is  gradually  condensed  by  the  heat  of  the  sun. 
It  is  as  brittle  and  shining  as  the  black  Stockholm  pitch, 
to  which  it  so  much  resembles,  that  nothing  but  the  bad 
smell  of  the  latter,  and  the  hardness  of  Asphaltum,  can 
shew  the  difference.  It  is  combustible;  and  exhales,  while 
burning,  a  strong  and  penetrating  smell. 

The  Jews  formerly  used  it  to  embalm  their  dead;  the 
Arabs  gather  it  for  pitching  their  ships;  but  Europeans  use 
it  in  several  medicinal  compositions,  as  also  for  a  fine  black 
varnish,  in  imitation  of  that  of  China. 


BLACK  LEAD. 


F.  Mine  de  plomb  ncir,  Plomb 

de  mine ,  Potelot. 

G.  Pott  loth. 

D.  Pot  loot. 

I.  Miniera  di  piomba>  Piom 
baggine. 

S .  Piedra  mineral  de  plomo. 


P.  Pedra  mineral  de  chumbo. 
DA.  Ely  ant. 

SW.  Elyerts. 

POL.  Oloivek. 

R.  T sc  her  noi  krandasch, 
Eleierz. 

L.  Plumbago. 


Black  lead  is  an  inflammable  substance,  which  when 
fresh  cut,  appears  of  a  bluish  white,  and  shining,  like  lead; 
but  when  pure,  becomes  extremely  black.  It  is  micaceous, 
and  minutely  scaly;  easily  broken,  and  when  broken,  of  a 
granulary,  dull  appearance.  Black  lead  is  too  soft  to  strike 
fire  with  steel:  it  is  insoluble  in  acids;  but  in  a  very  strong 
fire,  when  exposed  to  the  air  at  the  same  time,  it  is  en¬ 
tirely  volatile,  leaving  only  a  little  iron  and  a  small  quan¬ 
tity  of  silicious  earth.  The  substance  evaporating  is  phlo¬ 
giston  and  serial  acid. 

Black  lead  is  found  in  different  countries;  as  Germany, 
France,  Spain,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  America;  but 
Malaga  in  Spain  excepted,  generally  in  small  quantities, 
and  of  very  different  quality.  The  best  sort,  however, 
and  the  fittest  of  all  for  making  pencils,  is  that  met  with 
at  Borrowdale  in  Cumberland.  It  is  found  there  in  such 
plenty,  that  not  only  the  whole  island  of  Britain,  but  the 
whole  continent  of  Europe,  may  be  said  to  be  supplied 
from  thence. 


54 


The  principal  use  of  Black  lead,  is  for  making  pencils 
for  drawing.  One  part  of  Black  lead,  with  three  of  clay 
and  some  cows  hair,  makes  an  excellent  coating  for  re¬ 
torts,  as  it  keeps  its  form,  even  after  the  retorts  have 
melted.  The  powder  of  Black ,  lead  also  serves  to  cover 
the  straps  for  razors;  and  it  is  with  that,  the  cast  iron 
work,  such  as  stoves,  &c.  receive  a  gloss  on  their  surface. 

BLACK  PEPPER;  see  Pepper. 


BLUBBER 

Is  the  fat  of  whales  and  other  large  sea  animals,  whereof 
is  made  train-oil,  by  boiling  it  down.  The  whole  quan¬ 
tity  of  Blubber  yielded  by  a  whale,  ordinarily  amounts  to 
forty  or  fifty,  sometimes  to  eighty  and  more  hundred 
weight.  See  Train  Oil. 


BLUE  VITRIOL, 

VITRIOL  OF  COPPER,  OR  ROMAN  VITRIOL. 


F.  Vitriol  bleu,  Coup  erase 
bleue ,  Vitriol  Romain , 
Vitriol  de  Chypre. 

G.  Blauer  Vitriol ,  Kupfer 

Vitriol ,  Rbmiscber  Vi¬ 
triol . 

D.  Blaaunv  Vitriool,  Roper- 
<vitriool ,  Roomscb  Vi¬ 
triool. 

I.  Vitriuolo  tur chino,  di  rame, 
ciprio. 

S.  Vitriolo  azul,  de  cobre,  Ro¬ 
mano,  de  Chipre. 


P.  Vitriolo  de  cobre. 

DA.  Blau  Vitriol,  Robber 
Vitriol ,  Blaat  Robber - 
nr  and. 

SW.  Bla  Vitriol ,  Koppar 
Vitriol. 

POL.  Ropernvas  cypryyski, 
modry . 

R.  Sinei  Ruperos. 

L.  Vitriolum  coeruleum,  Cy- 
prinum ,  Romanutn ,  ve¬ 
neris. 


if  pure  oil  of  vitriol  is  boiled  on  copper  filings,  or  small 
pieces  of  the  metal,  it  dissolves  them  into  a  liquor  of  a 
deep  blue  colour,  which  easily  crystallizes.  The  crystals 
are  of  a  beautiful  blue  colour,  and  are  sold  under  the  name 
of  Blue  or  Roman  Vitriol. 


55 


Where  sulphur  is  found  in  great  plenty,  Blue  Vitriol  is 
made  by  stratifying  thin  plates  of  copper  with  sulphur;  and 
upon  slowly  burning  the  sulphur,  its  acid  corrodes  the 
copper.  The  metal  is  then  to  be  boiled  in  water,  that 
the  saline  part  may  be  dissolved.  The  operation  is  to  be 
repeated,  till  all  the  copper  is  dissolved,  and  all  the  saline 
liquors  are  to  be  evaporated  together,  to  the  crystallizing 
point.  By  this  method  however,  a  great  part  of  the  acid 
is  lost;  and  in  Britain,  the  pure  acid  must  be  preferable 
for  those  who  prepare  Blue  Vitriol. 

Vitriol  of  copper  is  chiefly  employed  in  medicine  as  a 
caustic. 

BOARDS. 


F.  Planches ,  Ais. 

G.  Breter 

D.  Borden ,  Berden. 
I.  Asst. 

S.  Tablas . 


P.  Taboas . 
DA.  Br&der. 
SW.  Br cider. 
POL.  Deski . 
R.  Dos  ki. 


Boards  are  long  pieces  of  timber  sawed  thin. 

Deal  Boards  are  generally  imported  into  England  ready 
sawed,  because  this  can  be  done  cheaper  abroad.  Clap 
boards  are  imported  from  Sweden  and  Dantzic  ready 
formed  for  coopers.  Oak  boards  chiefly  come  from  Swe¬ 
den  and  Holland,  some  from  Dantzic.  We  also  import 
White  boards  for  shoemakers;  Mill  and  Scale  boards,  &c. 
for  divers  artificers.  Scale  boards  are  a  thin  sort  of 
Board,  used  for  the  covers  of  primers,  thin  boxes,  & c. 
They  are  made  with  large  planes,  but  might  probably  be 
sawed  with  mills  to  advantage. 


BOLE. 


F.  Bol,  Bol  dd  Armenie,  Bol 

Jin  du  Levant 

G.  Bolus ,  Bis  sen,  Fetthon . 
D.  Bolus . 

I.  Boio . 

S.  Bol . 


P.  Bolo. 

DA.  Bolus ,  Fitleer. 

SW.  Bolus ,  Armenisk  Bolus. 
L.  Bolus  Armena  rubra,  Bo - 
he  mica,  &c. 


Boles  are  viscid  earths,  less  coherent  and  more  friable 
than  clay,  more  readily  uniting  with  water  and  more  freely 


56 


subsiding  from  it.  They  are  soft  and  un&uous  to  the 
touch,  and  melt  in  the  mouth,  impressing  a  slight  sense  of 
astringency.  Amongst  the  various  sorts  of  these  earths, 
the  principal  ones  are  the  following: 

The  Armenian  Bole,  of  a  bright  red  colour,  with  a  tinge 
of  yellow. 

The  French  Bole  is  of  a  pale  red  colour,  variegated  with 
irregular  specks  of  white  and  yellow. 

The  Bole  of  Blots  is  yellow,  and  remarkably  lighter  than 
most  of  the  other  yellow  earths. 

The  Bohemian  Bole  is  of  a  yellow  colour,  with  a  cast  of 
red,  and  generally  of  a  flakey  texture. 

The  Lemnian  Earth,  is  of  a  pale  brownish  red  colour. 

The  Silesian  Bole,  is  of  a  pale  yellow  colour. 

These  and  other  earths  made  into  little  masses,  and 
stamped  with  certain  impressions,  are  called  terra  sigillata . 
They  are  recommended  as  astringent,  sudorific  and  alexi- 
pharmic. 


BORAX. 


F.  Borax. 

G.  Bcrax. 
D.  Boras . 
I.  Borrace. 
S.  Borrax. 


DA.  Borax. 

SW.  Borax. 

POL.  Borahs. 

R.  Bura,  Borahs s. 
L.  Borax. 


P.  Borax. 

Borax  is  a  saline  salt,  chiefly  found  in  the  province  of 
Patna,  in  the  East-Indies.  Hitherto  the  chemists  in  Eu¬ 
rope  have  in  vain  attempted  to  counterfeit  it.  Some  of 
them  consider  it  as  an  alkaline  salt,  which  is  found,  com¬ 
pletely  formed,  in  the  country  of  Indostan;  others  will 
have  it  to  be  the  produce  of  volcanoes,  or  subterraneous 
fires. 

Borax  is  of  great  use  in  the  working  of  metals,  by  fa¬ 
cilitating  their  fusion  and  purification.  This  substance 
being  quickly  vitrified  by  the  action  of  fire,  attracts  the 
heterogeneous  particles  that  are  intermixed  with  these 
metals,  and  reduces  them  to  dross.  The  Borax  is  likewise 
absolutely  necessary  in  the  essaying  of  ores,  and  the  sol¬ 
dering  of  metals.  The  Dutch  alone  formerly  had  the 


57 


secret  of  refining  it,  but  it  is  now  likewise  refined  in  Bri 
tain. 

BOXWOOD. 


F.  Bois  de  Buis . 

G.  Buxbaumbolz 
D.  Palmbout. 

I.  BussOy  Bosso,  Bossolo. 
S.  Box. 

P.  Buchoy  Buxo. 


DA.  Buxbom. 

SW.  Buxbom . 

POL.  Bukspan. 

R.  ‘Jams  chit,  Seleniza 
L.  Buxus. 


Boxwood  is  extremely  hard  and  smooth,  therefore  well 
adapted  to  the  use  of  the  turner;  combs,  mathematical  and 
musical  instruments,  works  of  sculpture,  knife  handles, 
and  button  moulds,  are  made  of  it.  It  may  also,  properly 
enough,  serve  as  a  substitute  in  default  of  ebony. 

The  boxtree  formerly  grew  in  great  plenty  upon  Box- 
hill,  near  Dorking  in  Surry,  but  now  only  a  few  large  trees 
are  left. 

Boxwood  is  chiefly  imported  from  the  Levant,  some¬ 
times  also  from  Spain.  The  best  quality  ought  to  be  in 
pieces  of  a  good  size,  straight,  and  void  of  knots. 


BRANDY. 


F.  Eau  de  vie,  Brandevin. 

G.  Branntevcein. 

D.  Brandeivyn 

I.  Acqua  vita ,  Acquarzenie . 
S.  Aguardiente. 


P .  Aguardente. 

D  A .  Braendevin . 

S  W.  Br  'dnnvin.. 

POL.  Gorzalka,  Wodka. 
R.  Wino. 


Brandy  is  a  spirituous  and  inflammable  liquor,  extracted 
from  wine  and  other  substances  by  distillation. 

Wine  Brandy  made  in  France,  is  esteemed  the  best  in 
Europe.  They  make  it  wherever  they  make  wine,  and 
those  accounted  best,  are  the  Brandies  of  Cogniac,  Bour- 
deaux,  Rochelle,  &c. 

The  general  method  of  distilling  Brandies  in  France, 
differs  in  nothing  from  that  practised  here,  in  working 
from  malt-wash  or  mellasses;  they  only  observe  more  par- 
id 


58 


ticularly,  to  throw  in  a  little  of  the  natural  ley  into  the 
still,  along  with  the  wine,  and  this  seems  to  give  their 
spirit  the  superior  flavour  for  which  it  is  admired.  Some 
wines  are  much  more  proper  for  distillation  than  others. 
The  wines  of  Languedoc  and  Provence  afford  a  great  deal 
of  Brandy  by  distillation,  when  the  operation  is  performed 
on  them  in  their  full  strength.  The  Orleans  wines,  and 
those  of  Blois  afford  yet  more:  but  the  best  are  those  of 
the  territories  of  Cogniac  and  Andaye;  which  are  however 
in  the  number  of  those  the  least  drank  in  France.  Those 
of  Burgundy  and  Champagne,  though  of  a  very  fine  fla¬ 
vour,  are  improper,  as  yielding  but  very  little  in  distilla¬ 
tion. 

The  wines  of  Spain,  the  Canaries,  of  Cyprus,  of  Grave, 
of  Hungary,  and  others  of  the  same  kjpd,  yield  very  little 
Brandy  by  distillation,  and  consequently  will  not  answer. 

A  large  quantity  of  Brandy  is  distilled  in  France  du¬ 
ring  the  time  of  the  vintage  ;  for  all  those  poor  grapes  that 
prove  unfit  for  wine,  are  usually  first  gathered,  pressed, 
their  juice  fermented,  and  directly  distilled.  It  is  also  a 
general  rule  with  them,  not  to  distil  wine,  that  will  fetch 
any  price  as  wine;  for  in  that  state,  the  profits  on  them 
are  vastly  greater,  than  when  reduced  to  Brandies.  The 
large  stock  of  small  wines,  with  which  they  are  almost 
overrun  in  France,  sufficiently  accounts  for  their  making 
such  vast  quantities  of  Brandies  in  that  country,  more 
than  in  others  which  lie  in  warmer  climates,  and  are  bet¬ 
ter  adapted  for  the  produ<ftion  of  grapes.  All  the  wine 
which  turns  sour,  is  also  condemned  to  the  still. 

Our  distillers  imitate  foreign  Brandies  to  a  tolerable 
degree,  by  mixing  dulcified  spirit  of  nitre  with  British 
spirits.  But  the  only  method  of  imitating  French  Bran¬ 
dies  to  perfe&ion,  is  by  an  essential  oil  of  wine;  this  being 
the  very  thing  that  gives  them  their  flavour;  the  spirit 
however  should  be  perfe&ly  pure  and  tasteless :  for  it  is  in 
vain  to  expert,  that  this  essential  oil  should  correct  the 
fulsome  flavour  of  our  malt  spirits.  To  imitate  Cogniac 
Brandy,  it  is  necessary  that  the  essential  oil  should  be  dis¬ 
tilled  from  Cogniac  lees,  and  the  same  for  any  other  kind 
of  Brandy. 

French  Brandy,  that  has  acquired  by  age  a  great  degree 
of  softness  and  ripeness,  is  observed  at  the  same  time  to 
have  acquired  a  yellowish  brown  colour,  which  seems  to 


59 


proceed  from  some  of  the  resinous  matter  of  the  oak  cask* 
dissolved  in  the  spirit.  Also  this  colour  our  distillers  have 
endeavoured  to  imitate,  by  digesting  extract  of  oak,  or 
oak  shavings  in  spirit  of  wine.  Treacle  and  burnt  sugar 
are  also  used  for  colouring  Brandies. 

The  spirit  distilled  from  mellasses  or  treacle  is  very 
clean  or  pure.  But  though  much  cleaner  tasted  than 
malt  spirit,  it  will  not  prove  so  vinous,  unless  good  fresh 
wine  lees  are  added  to  and  fermented  with  the  mellasses. 
By  this  addition,  and  if  not  sufficient,  that  of  some  good 
dulcified  spirit  of  nitre,  when  brought  to  common  proof 
strength,  spirit  of  mellasses  may  be  made  to  pass  on  ordi¬ 
nary  judges  for  French  Brandy.  Great  quantities  of  this 
spirit  are  used  in  adulterating  foreign  Brandies,  Rum,  and 
Arrack. 

Brandy  distilled  a  second  time,  is  called  Spirit  of  wine ; 
and  this,  after  another  rectification,  is  called  Spirit  of  wine 
rectified . 


BRASILWOOD. 


F.  Bois  de  Bresil. 

G.  Brasilienbolz 
D.  Brasilienbout » 


DA.  Brasilientrae . 

SW.  Brasilia . 

POL.  Brezylia. 

R,  Brasilskoe  derenxo. 

L.  Lignum  Brasilianum, 


I.  Legno  del  Brasile ,  Verzino . 
S.  Brasil ,  Madera  del  Bresil. 


P.  Pao  Brasil . 

Brazilwood  is  a  very  heavy  hard,  red  wood,  first  brought 
from  Fernambucco,  a  town  of  Brasil  in  South  America; 
but  the  same  sort  of  wood  is  also  found  in  Japan  and  St. 
Martha;  that  of  Fernambucco  however  is  esteemed  the 
best,  and  should  be  chosen  in  thick  pieces,  close,  sound, 
and  without  any  bark. 

The  true  Brasilian  is  a  large  tree,  with  a  reddish  and 
thorny  bark;  the  leaves  small,  obtuse,  and  of  a  fine  shi¬ 
ning  green;  the  flowers  a  little  sweet,  and  of  a  beautiful 
red  hue;  the  pods  flat  and  prickly,  containing  two  com¬ 
pressed  seeds,  like  those  of  the  gourd. 

The  Brasilwood  brought  to  us,  differs  little  otherwise, 
than  as  different  parts  of  one  log;  some  pieces  being  richer 


60 


in  colour  than  others.  Many  have  confounded  this  wood 
with  red  saunders,  but  the  two  woods  chemically  consi¬ 
dered,  are  very  obviously  different  ;  Brasil  wood  veryrea- 
diiy  communicating  its  red  colour  to  water,  whilst  saun¬ 
ders  gives  no  red  tinge  to  any  aqueous  liquor.  The  watery 
tincture  of  Brasil  wood  however,  is  not  quite  so  deep,  as 
that  made  in  rectified  spirit  of  wine,  or  in  volatile  alkaline 
spirits. 

Brasil  wood  dyes  woollen  of  a  red  colour,  which  does 
not  want  beauty,  but  has  little  durability.  It  is  also  used 
by  turners. 


BRASILETTO  WOOD, 


S.  Brasilete. 

P.  Brasileto. 

DA.  Brasilethclt . 
SW.  Brasiletta. 


F  B  res  illot. 

G.  Brasilettholz . 
D  Brasilethout . 
I.  Brasileto . 


The  caesalpinia  brasiletto,  Brasiletto  or  Jamaica  wood, 
grows  naturally  in  the  warmest  parts  of  America,  from 
whence  it  is  imported  for  the  dyers,  who  use  it  much.  It 
is  thought  a  very  excellent  timber,  though  in  general  of 
small  diameter.  The  wood  is  elastic,  tough,  and  durable; 
takes  a  fine  polish,  is  of  a  beautiful  deep  orange  colour  in¬ 
clining  to  red,  full  of  resin,  and  yielding  an  excellent 
tin&ure  by  infusion. 

The  demand  for  this  wood  has  been  so  great,  that  none 
of  the  large  trees  are  left  in  any  of  the  British  plantations. 
The  largest  remaining,  are  not  above  two  inches  in  thick¬ 
ness^  and  eight  or  nine  feet  in  height.  The  branches  are 
slender,  and  full  of  small  prickles;  the  leaves  pinnated; 
the  flowers  white;  and  the  pods  inclose  several  small 
round  seeds.  The  red  colour  produced  from  this  wood, 
is  greatly  improved,  by  solution  of  tin  in  aqua  regia. 


BRASS;  see  Copper. 


61 


BRIMSTONE. 


F.  Sou/re. 

G.  Sch-xvefel. 

D.  Zvuawel,  Zolfer. 
I.  Zolfo ,  Solfo. 

S.  Axufre. 


DA.  S -vowel. 
SW.  SwafveL 
POL.  Siarka. 
R  Sjera. 

L.  Sulphur. 


P,  Enxofre . 

Brimstone  is  a  yellow,  tasteless,  hard,  brittle,  mineral 
substance;  which  when  rubbed,  becomes  ele&ric.  It  burns 
with  a  blue  flame,  and  a  disagreeable  suffocating  smell. 

The  name  of  Sulphur  seems  to  be  applied  to  Brimstone, 
after  it  has  undergone  a  refinement  in  this  country;  in  the 
state  in  which  the  substance  is  imported,  it  is  termed 
Brimstone. 

Brimstone  is  found,  sometimes  pure,  but  generally  com¬ 
bined  with  other  substances.  If  united  with  metals,  it  is 
called  pyrites.  Dr.  Watson  has  shewn,  in  a  paper  on 
lead  ore,  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  that  no  less 
than  seven  hundred  tons  are  annually  dissipated  in  the 
various  lead  mines  of  England,  for  want  of  a  different 
mode  of  purifying  the  ores.  It  has  lately  been  discovered, 
that  sulphur  is  formed,  by  a  natural  process,  in  animals 
and  vegetables  beginning  to  putrify.  It  is  found  on  stable 
walls  and  in  privies.  It  is  also  extracted  from  vegetables, 
as  the  dock-root,  coehlearia,  &c.  M.  Deyeux  obtained  it 
from  the  white  of  eggs.  It  has  likewise  been  procured 
from  horse-dung. 

The  Brimstone  used  in  Great  Britain  is  generally  brought 
from  volcanic  countries.  It  abounds  in  inexhaustible  quan¬ 
tities  in  Italy,  and  particularly  in  the  island  of  Sicily.  The 
very  first  quality  of  Sicily  Brimstone  is  that  of  the  Prince 
of  Trabia,  loaded  at  Lycata:  it  is  constantly  two  tar  ins 
higher  than  the  common  sorts.  The  second  sort  is  that 
of  the  Prince  of  Pantelaria,  shipped  at  Palma,  about  one 
tarin  dearer  than  common  Brimstone.  The  third  sort  in 
quality  is  that  of  the  Prince  of  Butera,  shipped  from  Fal- 
conara  or  Lycata.  Then  comes  the  fabric  of  the  Due  of 
Monteleone,  loaded  at  Fiume  di  Nero,  followed  by  that  of 
the  Prince  of  Catholica,  shipped  from  Syculiana,  These 
are  all  the  best  sorts  of  Brimstone. 


62 


In  Sicily,  the  Brimstone  is  dug  up  by  means  of  groves, 
drove  into  the  heart  of  the  mountains;  the  mineral  is 
brought  up  in  small  green  lumps,  and  laid  in  large  troughs 
lined  with  plaster.  When  the  fire  has  heated  them  to 
the  proper  degree,  the  Brimstone  exudes  through  holes  in 
the  bottom,  into  wooden  bowls  placed  under  them. 

A  more  refined  sort  of  Brimstone,  than  any  of  the  Si¬ 
cilian  fabrics,  is  brought  in  rolls  from  Leghorn.  The 
goodness  and  purity  of  Brimstone  is  to  be  distinguished 
by  an  uniform  palish  yellow  colour,  close  texture,  and 
small  grain.  Red  or  dark  stripes  are  signs  of  inferior 
quality.  When  melted  sulphur  is  gently  heated,  it  flies 
off  in  a  yellow  powder,  which  is  called  flowers  of  sulphur , 
mush  used  in  medicine.  A  composition  of  nitre  mixed 
with  Sulphur,  is  the  ingredient  for  making  oil  of  vitriol. 
Gunpowder  is  a  mixture  of  sulphur,  nitre,  and  charcoal. 
But  a  still  more  violent  composition  of  which  sulphur 
constitutes  an  ingredient,  is  fulminating  powder,  con¬ 
sisting  of  three  parts  of  nitre,  two  of  carbonate  of  potash, 
and  one  of  sulphur.  Sulphur  is  employed  in  medicine, 
both  internally  and  externally.  It  is  also  used  in  several 
arts.  By  means  of  it,  fine  impressions  of  engraved  stones 
are  taken.  It  is  used  for  whitening  wool,  silk,  and  many 
other  matters,  by  exposing  them  to  its  vapour  during  its 
combustion. 


BRISTLES. 


F.  Soies. 

G,  Borsten. 

D.  Borstels. 

J.  Set  ole. 

S.  Cerdas,  Set  as. 


DA.  Borster. 
SW.  Bor st. 

POL.  Szezeciny, 
R.  Schtschetina. 
L.  Setae. 


P.  Sedas ,  Cerdas. 

Bristles  are  a  rigid  glossy  kind  of  hair,  growing  upon 
the  backs  of  swine,  and  much  used  by  brushmakers, 
shoemakers,  sadlers,  and  others.  They  are  chiefly  im¬ 
ported  from  Russia  and  Poland.  The  latter  pass  under 
the  name  of  Konigsberg  Bristles,  and  amongst  the  former 
the  Ukraine  Bristles  are ‘most  esteemed. 


BRONZE;  see  Copper. 


63 


BUCKWHEAT. 


F.  Ble  Sarrasin ,  Blenoir. 

G.  Buchweizen ,  Heidekorn. 
X).  Bcekvueit. 

I.  Grano*  Saraceno,  Faggina 


P.  Trigo  Saraceno. 

DA.  Boghwede. 

6W.  Bohvete. 

POL.  Tatar ca,  Gryka ,  Po~ 


Fraina. ' 

S.  Trigo  Saraceno ,  Trigone 


hanca. 


gro. 


R.  Gretscha, 
L.  Fagopyrum. 


Buckwheat  is  produced  by  the  polygonum  sagopyrum, 
which  rises  with  an  upright  smooth  branchy  stem,  from 
about  a  foot  and  a  half  to  a  yard  high.  The  branches  are 
terminated  by  clusters  of  whitish  flowers,  succeeded  by 
large  angular  seeds. 

Buckwheat  is  frequently  cultivated,  both  by  way  of 
fodder,  cutting  its  stalks  while  young  and  green,  to  feed 
cattle;  and  for  its  grain,  to  feed  pigeons,  poultry,  hogs, 
&c.  for  which  it  affords  excellent  nourishment. 

Several  writers  who  lived  in  the  beginning  of  the  six¬ 
teenth  century,  consider  Buckwheat  to  be  a  plant  first 
introduced  into  Europe  in  their  time,  from  Greece  and 
the  northern  parts  of  Asia.  After  the  middle  of  the  said 
century,  it  had  become  the  common  food  of  the  poor  in 
France. 

That  Buckwheat  was  cultivated  in  England  about  the 
year  1597  is  proved  by  Gerard’s  Herbal. 

A  new  species  of  this  grain  has  been  made  known  of 
late  years,  under  the  name  of  Siberian  Buckwheat,  which 
appears  by  experience,  to  have  considerable  advantages 
over  the  former.  It  was  brought  from  Tartary  to  Peters¬ 
burg,  in  the  beginning  of  the  last  century,  and  has  thence 
been  dispersed  all  over  Europe. 


BUENOS  AYRES  HIDES. 


F.  Cuirs  de  Buenos  Ayres . 

G.  Buenos  Ayres  Hceute. 


These  are  the  hides  of  bull-oxen,  dried  in  the  hair,  and 
imported  from  Buenos  Ayres,  a  large  country  in  South 
America,  abounding  in  horned  cattle.  In  such  abundance 


64* 


are  these  animals  there,  that  the  hide  alone  is  esteemed  of 
any  value. 


BUFF-SKINS;  buffs. 


F.  Bufflle,  Beaux  de  Buffles. 

G.  Buffelhaute . 

D.  Bujfelsleer ,  Buffelsbuiden. 
I.  Bufaloy  Cuo jo  di  Bufalo. 


S.  Ante. 

P.  Couro  de  Bufalo. 

DA.  Boffelldder ,  Bojfelhuder . 
SW.  Buffelbuder. 


Buff,  is  a  sort  of  leather,  prepared  from  the  skin  of  the 
buffalo;  which,  dressed  with  oil,  after  the  manner  of  the 
shamoy,  makes  what  we  call  Buff  skins.  The  principal 
manufactories  of  this  article,  are  in  France  and  Germany; 
and  it  makes  a  very  considerable  article  in  the  Levant 
trade*  The  skins  of  elks,  oxen  and  other  like  animals, 
when  prepared  in  the  buffalo  manner,  are  likewise  called 
Buffs. 

Buff-leather  is  used  for  sword  belts,  and  for  other  pur¬ 
poses  where  its  exceeding  thickness  and  firmness  is  re¬ 
quired. 


BURGUNDY  PITCH;  s ee  Pitch. 


BUTTER. 


F.  Beurre. 

G.  Butter . 

D.  Boter. 

1.  Burro ,  Butlro. 
S.  Manteca. 

P.  Mante'tga. 


DA.  Smor. 

SW.  Smor. 

POL  Mask. 

R.  Masslo  K or  owe. 
L.  Butyrum. 


Butter  is  the  fat,  oily,  and  inflammable  part  of  the  milk. 
Fresh  Butter,  which  has  undergone  no  change,  has  scarcely 
any  smell;  its  taste  is  mild  and  agreeable,  it  melts  with  a 
weak  heat,  and  none  of  its  principles  are  disengaged  by 
the  heat  of  boiling  water. 

The  trade  in  Butter  is  very  considerable;  some  com¬ 
pute  50,000  tons  annually  consumed  in  London.  The 
quantity  of  Butter  generally  imported  annually  in  the  port 


65 


of  London,  from  York,  Hull,  Scarborough,  and  Stockton, 
is  about  115,000  firkins;  from  Newcastle  upon  Tyne 
15,700  firkins;  and  from  the  county  of  Suffolk  56,700 
firkins.  There  are  also  annually  brought  to  London,  by 
land  carriage,  about  75,000  firkins  of  Cambridge  Butter; 
and  about  30,000  firkins  from  all  other  parts  of  the 
kingdom.  Large  quantities  of  Butter,  likewise,  are  con¬ 
stantly  imported  from  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  Holland. 

No  Butter  is  esteemed  equal  to  that,  made  in  the  county 
of  Essex:  well  known  by  the  name  of  Epping  Butter,  in 
which  at  no  time  they  mix  much  salt,  though  a  little  is 
absolutely  necessary. 

In  many  parts  of  this  kingdom,  they  colour  their  But¬ 
ter  in  winter,  to  make  it  appear  like  May  Butter.  Divers 
abuses  are  committed,  in  the  packing  and  salting  of  But¬ 
ter,  against  which  we  have  a  statute  express. 


CALAMINE. 


F.  Calamine ,  Pierre  calami 

naire. 

G.  Galmey. 

D.  Kalmei,  Kalamint steen. 

I.  Gialla  mina>  Z,el lamina , 
Pietra  calaminaris . 

S.  Calamina,  Piedra  calami- 
nar. 


P.  Calaminat  Pedra  calami- 
naria. 

DA.  Galmey. 

SW.  Gallmeja. 

POL.  Galmaia,  Gal  man. 

R.  Kamen  kalaminar,  Gal- 
meja. 

L.  Lapis  calaminaris ,  Cala • 
mina,  Cadmia. 


Calamine  is  the  general  ore  of  zinc,  of  a  spungy  sub¬ 
stance,  yet  considerably  heavy.  It  is  when  most  pure  and 
perfect  of  a  pale  brownish  grey,  and  found  in  Saxony, 
Bohemia  and  England.  About  the  west  end  of  Mendip 
hills,  in  Somersetshire,  Lapis  Calaminaris  is  to  be  met  with 
in  great  plenty,  lying  near  the  surface  of  the  earth.  It  is 
of  several  colours,  some  white,  some  inclining  to  red,  some 
grey,  and  some  blackish. 

Mixed  with  copper,  Lapis  Calaminaris  in  virtue  of  the 
zinc  it  contains,  makes  brass.  It  is  much  used  in  medicine 
externally  j  and  should  be  chosen  for  that  use,  as  heavy, 
soft,  and  friable,  as  it  can  be  got,  and  least  debased  by  other 
substances. 


F.  Camphre • 

G.  Kampher. 

D.  Kamfer. 

I.  Canfora . 

S.  Ale  an f or  >  Catifor. 
P.  Ale  an  for. 


DA.  Kampher. 

SW.  Kamfer . 

POL.  Kamfer  a. 

R.  Kamfora ,  Kanfora . 
L.  Camphor  a. 


Camphire  is  a  volatile  concrete,  belonging  to  the  class 
of  essential  oils  j  though  Camphire  is  always  in  a  solid 
state. 


68 


It  is  the  produce  of  the  laurus  camphora,  a  tree  which 
grows  naturally  in  the  woods  of  the  western  parts  of  Japan, 
and  the  adjacent  isles-,  but  is  now  cultivated  also  in  the 
isles  of  Sumatra  and  Borneo,  and  in  China.  We  are  in¬ 
formed,  that  in  China  some  of  these  trees  are  found  above 
one  hundred  cubits  in  height,  and  so  thick,  that  twenty 
persons  cannot  inclose  them.  The  China  and  Japan 
Campliire  is  almost  the  only  kind  brought  to  Europe,  and 
is  inferior  to  that  of  Borneo  and  Sumatra. 

All  parts  of  the  Camphire  tree  are  impregnated  with 
the  essential  oil,  though  the  roots  contain  most.  It  is  ex¬ 
tracted,  by  chopping  the  wood  of  the  tree  very  small, 
laying  it  to  steep  in  water,  and  distilling  it. 

Pure  Camphire  is  very  white,  pellucid,  somewhat 
unrtuous  to  the  touch,  of  a  bitterish  aromatic  taste,  and 
fragrant  smell.  It  possesses  considerable  antiseptic  virtues, 
and  is  a  good  diaphoretic,  for  which  purposes  it  is  used  in 
medicine.  It  is  likewise  employed  in  fireworks,  and  se¬ 
veral  other  arts,  particularly  in  making  varnishes. 


CANTHARIDES. 

DA.  Spanske fiuer. 

SW.  Span  ska  finger. 
POL.  Kantarjdy ,  Hisz- 
pan\kie  mueby . 

R.  Hischpanskie  muchi. 

L.  Cantharides . 


Cantharides  differ  from  each  other,  in  their  size,  shape, 
and  colour.  The  largest  are  about  an  inch  long,  but 
others  are  not  above  three  quarters  of  an  inch.  Some  are 
of  a  pure  azure  colour,  others  of  that  of  pure  gold,  and 
others  again  have  a  mixture  of  gold  and  azure  colours;  all 
very  brilliant,  and  extremely  beautiful. 

These  inserts  are  more  common  in  hot  countries,  such 
as  Spain,  Italy,  and  the  South  of  France;  though  they  are 
to  be  met  with  in  all  parts  of  Europe  at  some  seasons  of 
the  year;  particularly  among  wheat  and  in  meadows,  upon 
the  leaves  of  the  ash,  the  poplar,  the  willow,  the  rose  tree, 
honey  suckle,  lilac,  wiki  cherry,  &c.  Such  numbers  of 
these  inserts  are  sometimes  together  in  the  air,  that  they 


F.  Cantharides ,  Mouches  a” 
Espagne. 

G  Spanische  Fliegen , 

D  Spaansche  vliegen . 

I  Cant  are  lie. 

S.  Cantaridas . 

P.  Cantaridas . 


69 


/ 


appear  like  swarms  of  bees,  and  they  have  so  disagreeable 
a  smell,  that  it  may  be  perceived  a  great  way  off,  espe¬ 
cially  about  sun  set,  though  they  are  not  seen  at  that  time, 
This  bad  smell  is  a  guide  for  those  who  make  it  their  bu¬ 
siness  to  catch  them. 

Those  that  gather  them  tie  them  in  a  bag  or  piece  of 
linen  cloth,  that  has  been  well  worn;  upon  which  they 
are  killed  with  the  vapours  of  hot  vinegar,  and  then  dried 
in  the  sun,  and  kept  in  boxes. 

When  dried,  they  are  so  light,  that  fifty  of  them  will 
hardly  weigh  a  drachm.  Those  that  are  dry,  fresh,  and 
whole,  are  the  best.  The  Sicilian  Cantharides,  and  parti¬ 
cularly  those  of  Mount  Etna,  are  reckoned  preferable  to 
those  of  Spain.  They  are  found  there  particularly  on  the 
pine  and  fig  tree,  whose  juice  is  supposed  to  impart  to 
them  a  corrosive  and  abstersive  quality. 

Cantharides  taken  inwardly  as  medicine,  a£t  as  a  stimu¬ 
lus  upon  the  urinary  passages,  and  should  be  carefully 
made  use  of.  Outwardly  they  are  the  basis  of  blistering 
plaisters,  by  mixing  their  powder  with  some  proper  oint¬ 
ment. 


CAPERS. 


F.  Capres. 

G.  Kappern. 
D.  Kappers. 

I.  Cappari. 

S.  Al  cap  arras . 
P.  Alcapparas. 


DA.  Kapersy  Kappern. 
SW.  Kapriiy  Capris. 
POL.  Kaparj. 

R.  Kaperszii. 

L.  Cap  par  is. 


Capers  are  the  pickled  buds  of  the  Capparis  spinosa,  a 
low  shrub,  generally  growing  out  of  the  joints  of  old  walls 
and  the  fissures  of  rocks,  in  most  of  the  warm  parts  of 
Europe. 

Capers  are  imported  into  Great  Britain,  from  different 
parts  of  the  Mediterranean;  the  best  from  Toulon  in 
France.  Some  small  salt  Capers  come  from  Majorca,  and 
a  few  flat  ones  from,  about  Lyons. 

Capers  are  chiefly  used  as  a  pickle  in  sauces,  and  are 
supposed  to  excite  appetite  and  to  assist  digestion.  In 
medicine,  they  are  considered  particularly  useful  as  deter¬ 
gents  and  aperients  in  obstructions  of  the  liver  and  spleen. 


70 


CARAWAY  SEED. 


F.  Car'ii,  Cumin  des  pres. 

G.  Iiucmmel. 

D.  Kar< wey,  Veidkomyn . 

I.  Car<vi. 

S.  Alcaravea. 

P.  Alcarwvia ,  Alcbiri'via, 
Chir'uvia . 


DA.  Kummen ,  Dansk  Kutn - 
Kar*ve. 

SW.  Kummin ,  Brodku?nin , 
Karf. 

POL.  Karuy,  Kmin  polny. 
R.  Dikii  Timon. 

L.  Car<vi. 


The  Carum  Carvi  plant,  grows  spontaneously  in  many 
parts  of  Great  Britain;  but  its  seed  is  mostly  imported  for 
use,  from  Provence  and  Languedoc  in  France. 

Caraway  is  a  small,  narrow,  longish  seed,  furrowed  on 
the  back;  of  an  aromatic  smell,  and  warm  pungent  taste. 
It  is  used  in  biscuits,  seed  cakes,  and  confections;  incrusted 
with  sugar  as  a  sweetmeat,  and  distilled  with  spirituous 
liquors,  for  the  sake  of  its  flavour. 


CARBUNCLE. 


F.  Escarbcucle. 

G.  Karfunkel. 
D.  KarfonkeL 
I.  Carbonchio . 
S.  Carbunculo. 
P.  Carfiinculo. 


D  A  Karbuukel. 
SW.  Karbuukel. 
POL.  Karbunkul. 
R.  Kcrbunkel . 

L.  Carbunculus. 


Carbuncle  is  a  very  elegant  gem,  of  a  deep  red  colour, 
with  a  mixture  of  scarlet. 

Its  usual  size  is  near  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length,  and 
two  thirds  of  that  in  diameter  in  its  thickest  parts.  When 
held  up  against  the  sun,  it  loses  its  deep  tinge,  and  becomes 
exaCfly  of  the  colour  of  a  burning  charcoal;  whence  the 
propriety  of  the  Ancients  calling  it  anthrax.  It  bears  the 
fire  unaltered.  It  is  very  rare,  and  only  found  in  the 
East  Indies. 


71 


CARDAMOM. 


D.  Kardamomen. 
I.  Cardamomi. 

S.  Cardamomos . 


F.  Cardamomos . 


G.  Kardamumen. 


%  DA.  Cardamomer. 

SW.  Kardcmummor . 
POL.  Kar  da  mom. 

R.  Kar daman. 

L.  Amomum  cardamomum. 


P.  Cardamomos. 

This  plant  is  a  species  of  the  same  genus  as  the  grains 
of  paradise  and  ginger.  It  is  little  known  in  this  country 
except  by  its  seeds,  which  are  used  as  medicine  and  in  the 
kitchen.  It  is  a  native  of  India,  and  divided  into  two 
sorts,  Cardamomum  majus  and  minus.  The  first  when  it 
comes  to  us,  is  a  dried  fruit  or  pod,  about  an  inch  long, 
containing  under  a  thick  skin,  two  rows  of  small  triangu¬ 
lar  seeds  of  a  warm  aromatic  flavour.  The  Cardamomum 
minus  is  a  fruit,  scarcely  half  the  length  of  the  foregoing, 
but  considerably  stronger  both  in  smell  and  taste. 


CARMINE. 


F.  Carmin. 

G.  Kar  mi  n. 
D.  Kar  my  n. 
I.  Car  mini  o . 
S.  Carmin. 


DA.  Carmin. 
SW.  Carmin. 
POL.  Kar  min. 
R.  Karmin. 


L.  Carminium. 


P.  Cartnim. 

A  very  beautiful  red  colour,  bordering  upon  purple. 
The  manner  of  preparing  it  is  kept  a  secret  by  the  colour 
makers,  though  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  is  a  preparation 
of  Cochineal. 

Carmine  is  us'ed  by  woollen  drapers,  to  colour  and  hide 
those  places  in  scarlet  cloth,  which  are  defective :  it  is  also 
used  by  painters  in  miniature,  and  sometimes  by  painters 
in  oil;  though  rarely  by  the  latter;  on  account  of  its  very 
high  price. 


72 


CASSIA  BUDS. 


F.  Fleurs  de  Casse. 

G.  Kassia-blutbe ,  Kassia - 
blumen . 

D.  Kassieblcemen. 

I.  Fiori  di  Cassia. 


S.  Flor  de  arbol  de  Canela . 
P.  Flores  de  Cassia . 

DA.  Cassieblomstre . 

SW.  Cassiablomster . 

L.  Flores  Cussice. 


Cassia  Buds  are  the  buds  of  the  flowers  of  the  laurus 
cassia,  or  cassia  lignea  tree.  They  are  used  by  distillers, 
in  conjunction  with  cassia  lignea,  for  preparing  cinnamon 
water;  and  imported  from  different  parts  of  the  East  In¬ 
dies  and  China. 


CASSIA  FISTULA,  cassia  in  the  cane. 


F.  Casse  soluti-ve ,  Casse  en 
batons  ou  en  canons ,  Cane- 
fice,  Cassefstule. 

G.  Kassia ,  Roehrenkassiay 
Purgier  Kassia. 

D.  Kassie ,  Pypkassie,  Rict- 
kassie ,  Purgeerende  Kassie. 

I.  Cassia  Jistola. 


S.  Canafistola,  Casia  pur* 
gantey  Casia  Jistola . 

P.  Cassia  purganle,  Cana » 
fistula 

DA.  Cassia ,  Roer cassia. 
SW.  Cassia ,  Rcer cassia. 
POL.  Fistula. 

R.  Kassia. 

L.  Cassia  fistula . 


This  is  the  purgative  fruit  or  pods  of  the  Cassia  fistula, 
black  or  purging  Cassia,  a  tree  originating  from  Egypt  and 
both  Indies,  where  it  rises  to  the  height  of  forty  or  fifty 
feet.  The  flowers  are  produced  in  long  spikes  at  the  end 
of  the  branches,  and  are  succeeded  by  cylindrical  pods, 
from  one  to  two  feet  and  upwards  long,  with  a  dark  brown 
woody  shell,  divided  into  many  cells  by  transverse  parti¬ 
tions,  each  containing  one  or  two  oval,  smooth,  compres¬ 
sed,  yellowish  seeds,  lodged  in  a  blackish,  soft,  sweetish 
pulp,  which  is  used  in  medicine.  Those  pods  are  best  that 
are  fresh,  full  and  will  not  rattle  when  shaken. 

There  are  two  sorts  of  this  drug  in  the  shops;  one  brought 
from  the  East  the  other  from  the  West  Indies;  the  canes 
or  pods  of  the  latter,  are  generally  large,  rough,  thick 
rinded,  and  the  pulp  nauseous;  those  of  the  former  are 
less,  smoother,  the  pulp  blacker  and  of  a  sweeter  taste. 


73 


This  is  probably  owing  to  a  difference  in  soil  and  culture. 
In  Jamaica,  the  finest  fruit  is  produced  from  trees  growing 
in  a  rich  deep  mould  in  spine  warm  and  well  sheltered  vale. 

For  using  this  fruit,  the  pulp  is  taken  out  of  the  pods 
and  sifted;  though  apothecaries  use  little  of  this  kind  but 
what  is  old  and  boiled  up  with  sugar  to  make  it  keep. 

CASSA  LIGNEA. 


F.  Cassia  lignea ,  Casse  en 
bcis ,  Cane  lie  de  la  Chin:. 

G.  Cassia  lignea ,  Kassien - 
rinde 

D-  Houtkassie ,  Moederkaneel 
L  Cassilignea. 


S  Cassia  levosa ,  Casalignea. 
P  Cas  ia  lenhcsa . 

D  A  Moderkaneel. 

SVV.  Modercanel. 

L.  Cassia  lignea . 


The  bark  of  laurus  cassia,  Cassia  lignea,  or  base  cin¬ 
namon,  is  imported  from  different  parts  of  the  Fast  Indies 
and  from  China;  particularly  from  Timor,  Java,  Mindanao, 
and  the  Malabar  coast.  It  has  a  very  near  resemblance 
to  cinnamon,  though  distinguishable  from  it,  by  being  of 
a  more  thick,  red,  and  coarse  appearance,  and  by  its 
breaking  short  and  smooth,  while  the  cinnamon  breaks 
fibrous  and  shivery.  It  resembles  cinnamon  still  more 
exactly,  in  its  -aromatic  flavour  than  in  its  external  ap¬ 
pearance;  and  seems  only  to  differ  from  it  in  being  some¬ 
what  weaker,  in  abounding  more  with  a  viscous  mucila¬ 
ginous  matter,  and  in  being  less  astringent. 

It  frequently  serves  as  a  substitute  for  the  more  expen¬ 
sive  article  of  cinnamon,  particularly  in  medicine:  as  al¬ 
most  the  whole  of  what  is  at  present  sold  under  the  title 
of  either  simple  or  spirituous  cinnamon  water,  is  entirely 
prepared  from  Cassia;  and  not  even  entirely  from  the 
bark,  but  from  a  mixture  of  the  bark  and  buds. 


F.  Cast  ore  urn, 

G.  Bibergeil. 
D  Beevergeil. 
i  Castorio% 

S.  Castoreo. 

P.  Castoreo . 


CASTOREUM. 

D  A .  Bcevergel. 

S  VV .  £  djverg  d  //. 
FOL-  S  troy  be  Lowry. 
R.  Rcbrowaja  struja. 
L.  Castoreum . 


Castoreum  was  formerly  believed  to  be  the  produce  of 

K 


74 


th£  testicles,  but  later  discoveries  have  shewn  that  it  is  con¬ 
tained  in  four  bags  situated  in  the  lower  belly,  of  the  bea¬ 
ver.  Two  of  these,  that  are  called  the  superior,  from 
being  more  elevated  than  the  others,  are  filled  with  a 
soft  resinous  adhesive  matter,  mixed  with  small  fibres,  grey¬ 
ish  without  and  yellowish  within,  of  a  strong,  disagreeable 
and  penetrating  scent,  an  acrid  bitterish  and  nauseous  taste, 
and  very  imflammable.  This  is  the  true  Castoreum:  it 
hardens  in  the  air,  and  comes  to  ^us  in  round,  brown, 
brittle,  and  friable  balls,  of  a  red  liver  colour  within. 
The  inferior  bags  contain  an  unctuous  liquor  like  honey, 
which  in  time  becomes  about  the  consistence  of  tallow, 
but  its  odor  is  rather  weaker  and  more  disagreeable  than 
that  of  the  true  Castoreum. 

The  best  sort  of  Castoreum  is  what  comes  from  Russia; 
an  inferior  sort,  brought  from  Dantzic,  is  generally  fat 
and  moist;  and  the  American  Castoreum,  which  is  the 
worst  of  all,  is  in  longish  thin  balls. 

Castoreum  is  looked  upon  as  one  of  the  capital  nervine 
and  antihysteric  medicines. 


CASTOR  OIL. 


F.  Haile  de  Ricin. 

G.  Unachres  P  a  Imo  el  t  Rici- 
nns  cel. 

I.  Olio  di  Ricino . 


S.  jdceite  de  Ricino ,  6  PalmX 
Chrisii.  ' 

P.  Oleo  de  Ricino. 

L  Oleum  pulmee  Cbristi , 
Oleum  Ricini. 


Castor  oil  is  extracted  from  the  kernel  of  the  fruit,  pro¬ 
duced  by  the  ricinus  Americanus,  or  oil-nut  tree,  which 
grows  in  many  parts  of  America,  and  is  now  much  culti¬ 
vated  in  Jamaica.  It  is  raised  from  the  nut  or  seed, 
grows  with  a  suprising  rapidity  to  the  height  of  fifteen  or 
sixteen  feet,  and  seems  to  flourish  most  in  gullies,  or  near 
running  water,  in  cool  shady  spots.  The  seeds  being  freed 
from  the  husks  or  pods,  which  are  gathered  upon  their 
turning  brown,  and  when  beginning  to  burst  open;  are 
first  bruised  in  a  mortar,  afterwards  tied  up  in  a  linen  bag, 
and  then  thrown  into  a  large  pot,  with  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  water  (about  eight  gallons  to  one  gallon  of  the  seeds), 
and  boiled  till  their  oil  is  risen  to  the  surface;  this  is  care- 


75 


fully  skimmed,  strained,  and  kept  for  use.  One  gallon  of 
nuts,  will  yield  about  one  quart  of  oil.  Thus  prepared,  it 
is  entirely  free  from  all  acrimony,  and  will  freely  stay  upon 
the  stomach,  when  it  rejects  most  other  medicines. 

But  when  intended  for  medicinal  use,  the  oil  is  more 
frequently  cold  drawn,  or  extracted  from  the  bruised  seeds, 
by  means  of  a  hand-press 5  though  this  is  thought  more  acri¬ 
monious  than  what  is  prepared  by  coction.  The  cold 
drawn  oil,  at  first  is  perfectly  limpid ;  but  after  being  kept 
for  some  time,  acquires  a  pale  tincture,  resembling  Lisbon 
wine,  probably  caused  by  the  membrane,  which  covers 
the  kernels. 

This  oil  is  most  usually  obtained  in  Great  Britain  from 
the  seeds  imported  in  barrels.  It  is  not  subject  to  contract 
rancidity,  unless  it  is  made  from  parched  cr  roasted  seeds, 
which  are  impregnated  with  an  empyreuma.  Castor  oil  is 
used  internally  in  medicine,  as  a  gentle  purgative,  and  ex¬ 
ternally  for  removing  cramps,  &c. 


CAVIARE. 


F.  Caviar ,  Cavial. 

G.  Kaviar . 

D.  Kavejaar.  * 

I.  Caviario ,  C aviate. 
S.  Caviario. 


DA.  Caviar . 


S W .  Caviar ,  Kaviar. 
POL  Ikra. 

R.  Ikra. 

L.  Caviarium. 


P.  Caviario. 

Caviare  is  the  spawn  or  roes  of  sturgeon ;  it  is  either  salt¬ 
ed,  dried,  and  made  into  small  cakes,  or  sometimes  in  its 
natural  state  packed  up  in  kegs. 

This  sort  of  food  is  in  great  repute  in  Russia,  on  ac¬ 
count  of  their  three  lents. 

The  sturgeon  is  found  at  the  mouth  of  most  of  the  ri¬ 
vers  in  Russia,  particularly  those  which  fall  into  the  Cas¬ 
pian  sea.  The  sturgeon  caught  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Wolga,  near  Astrachan,  is  of  a  prodigious  size;  and  it  is 
confidently  affirmed,  that  one  of  their  roes  will  weigh 
three  hundred  pounds. 

There  is  a  pretty  large  quantity  of  this  commodity  con¬ 
sumed  in  Italy,  and  they  are  well  acquainted  with  it  also, 
in  France  and  England. 


76 


CAY  AN;  or  Cayenne  pepper;  see  Guinea  Pepper, 


CEDAR  WOOD. 

F  Cedre. 

G  Cederholx, 

D.  Cei-.tr. 

I  Cedro% 

S  Cedro. 

P  Cedro, 

The  Pinus  cedra,  commonly  called  by  us  Cedar  of  Le¬ 
banon,  and  sometimes  the,  Phoenician  or  Syrian  Cedar,  is 
of  a  coniferous  evergreen  of  the  bigger  sort,  bearing  large 
roundish  cones  of  smooth  scales,  standing  erect,  the  leaves 
being  small,  narrow,  and  thick  set. 

Cedar-wood  is  reputed  almost  immortal,  and  incorrup¬ 
tible  •  a  prerogative  which  it  owes  chiefly  to  its  bitter  taste, 
which  the  worms  cannot  endure. 

If  this  tree  abounded  with  us,  it  might  have  a  principal 
share  in  our  most  superb  edifices.  1  he  aromatic  effluvia, 
constantly  emitted  from  its  waod,  is  said  to  purify  the  air 
and  make  rooms  wholesome.  ChapelV  and  places  set  apart 
for  religious  duties,  being  wainscotted  with  Cedar  wood, 
inspire  the  worshippers  with  a  more  solemn  awe.  On  ac¬ 
count  of  the  great  durability  of  Cedar  wood  it  was,  that 
the  Ancients  used  Cedar  tablets  to  write  upon,  especially 
for  things  of  importance.  A  juice  was  also  drawn  from 
Cedar,  with  which  they  smeared  their  books  and  writings, 
or  other  matters,  to  preserve  them  from  rotting.  In  the 
temple  of  Apollo  at  CTtica,  there  were  Cedar  trees  near 
two  thousand  years  old;  which  yet  were  nothing  to  that 
beam  of  an  oratory  of  Diana  at  Seguntum  in  Spain,  said 
to  have  been  brought  thither  two  hundred  years  before 
the  destruction  of  Trov. 

From  the  account  of  the  latest  travellers  to  mount  Le¬ 
banon,  it  appears,  there  are  but  very  few  Cedar  trees  re¬ 
maining  there. 

They  sometimes  counterfeit  Cedar,  by  dying  wood  of 
a  reddish  hue;  but  the  smell  discovers  the  fraud:  that  of 
true  Cedar  being  very  aromatic.  In  some  places  the  wood 


DA.  Cedertra. 
6W.  Cedertraed. 
POL  Cedr, 

R.  Kedr. 

L.  Cedrui. 


77 


of  the  cajou-tree,  passes  under  the  name  of  Cedar,  on  ac¬ 
count  of  its  reddish  colour  and  aromatic  smell. 

CERUSE  ;  see  White  Lead . 


CHEESE. 


F.  From  age. 

G  Kaese. 

D  Kaas. 

I.  Fromaggic,  Cacio. 
£.  Queso. 

P.  Qjcijo. 


DA  Ost. 
SW.  Ost. 
POL  Ser. 
R  Sur. 

L.  Caseus, 


Cheese,  is  a  kind  of  food,  prepared  of  curdled  milk, 
purged  from  the  whey,  and  afterwards  dried  for  use. 

Cheese  differs  in  quality,  according  as  it  is  made  from 
new  or  skimmed  milk:  from  the  curd  which  separates 
spontaneously  upon  standing,  or  that  which  is  more  spee¬ 
dily  produced,  by  the  addition  of  rennet.  Cream  also, 
affords  a  kind  of  Cheese,  but  quite  fat  and  butyraceous, 
and  which  does  not  keep  long. 

Every  country  has  places  noted  for  this  commodity: 
thus  Chester,  Gloucester,  and  Stilton  cheese  are  famous 
in  England.  In  Switzerland,  there  is  a  kind  of  medicated, 
herb  or  green  cheese,  made  by  intimately  mixing  the 
juice  of  certain  herbs  with  the  curd,  before  it  is  fashioned 
into  a  cheese;  of  this  kind  is  the  Schabzieger  Cheese, 
made  in  the  Canton  of  Glaris  in  Switzerland.  An  Italian 
kind  of  Cheese,  called  Parmesan  Cheese,  is  particularly 
famous  all  over  Europe.  It  is  known  in  Italy,  under  the 
name  of  Lodi,  a  territory  adjacent  to  the  Parmesan,  and 
abounding  in  excellent  pasture.  The  good  qualities  cf  this 
Cheese  are,  to  be  new,  of  a  yellow  taste,  close,  and  with¬ 
out  eyes.  Holland  furnishes  several  countries  with  a  pro¬ 
digious  quantity  of  Cheese.  The  Gouda  and  Edam  Cheeses 
have  a  great  repute. 

The  method  of  making  Gloucester- Cheese  in  England 
is  as  follows.  The  best  Gloucester-Cheese  is  made  from 
new  milk,  and  for  every  Cheese,  only  one  meal’s  milk 
ought  to  be  used.  This  must  be  changed  or  turned  with 


78 


the  rennet.  When  the  milk  is  turned,  the  whey  should 
be  carefully  strained  from  the  curd,  and  the  latter  put  in 
the  vat  equally  broken,  taking  care  to  put  first  a  Cheese 
cloth  under  it.  The  vat  is  then  taken  to  the  press  for  two 
hours,  when  it  should  be  turned  to  have  a  clean  cloth  put 
under  it,  and  then  turned  back.  It  must  then  be  pressed 
again,  for  six  or  eight  hours,  when  it  should  again  be 
turned  and  rubbed  with  salt.  After  this  it  must  be  pressed 
a  third  time,  for  the  space  of  twelve  or  fourteen  hours 
more,  when,  if  any  of  the  edges  projeft,  they  should  be 
pared  off.  It  may  then  be  put  on  a  dry  board,  where  it 
should  be  regularly  turned  every  day. 

The  quantity  of  Cheese  annually  imported  in  London, 
is  about  5,760  tons  of  Cheshire  Cheese*,  thin  Cheese,  from 
Hull  and  Gainsborough,  1,400  tons;  from  Suffolk,  980; 
and  from  Newbury,  Abingdon,  and  other  places,  by  bar¬ 
ges,  2,400  tons. 

Cheese,  when  analyzed  chemically,  appears  to  partake 
much  more  of  an  animal  nature  than  butter,  or  the  milk 
from  which  it  is  made.  Shaved  thin,  and  properly  treated 
with  hot  water,  it  forms  a  very  strong  cement  if  mixed 
with  quicklime.  As  a  food,  physicians  condemn  the  too 
free  use  of  it.  When  new,  it  is  extremely  difficult  of  di¬ 
gestion;  when  old,  it  becomes  acrid  and  hot,  and  is  of  a 
septic  nature.  Cheese  made  from  the  milk  of  sheep,  di¬ 
gests  sooner  than  that  from  the  milk  of  cows,  but  is  less 
nourishing;  that  from  the  milk  of  goats  digests  sooner 
than  either,  but  is  also  the  least  nourishing. 


CHESNUTS 


DA.  Kastanier . 
SW,  Kastanier . 
POL.  Kasztany. 
R  Kaschtan'u. 
L.  Cast  aura ?. 


F.  Chatignes . 

G  Kastanien . 

D.  Kastanien ,  Karst engen 
I.  Ca.  iagne. 

S.  Castanas. 


P.  Castanhas • 

The  Fagus  Castanea,  or  Chesnut  tree,  has  a  large  up¬ 
right  trunk,  growing  commonly  forty  or  fifty  feet  high, 
branching  regularly  round  into  a  fine  spreading  head, 
garnished  with  large  spear  shaped  acutely  serrated  leaves. 


79 


naked  on  the  upper  side,  having  flowers  in  long  amen- 
turns,  succeeded  by  round  prickly  fruit,  containing  two  or 
more  nuts. 

Chesnuts  grow  wild  in  this  country,  but  never  equal 
those 'in  size  and  perfection,  which  are  imported  from 
Spain  and  Italy.  Foreign  Chesnuts  are  frequently  kiln 
dried,  to  prevent  their  sprouting  in  the  passage,  and  in 
that  case  are  unfit  for  seed. 

The  Chesnut  trees  sometimes  grow  to  an  immense  size, 
and  the  largest  of  the  known  world,  are  those  growing 
upon  Mount  Etna  in  Sicily.  The  most  bulky  of  them  is 
known  by  the  name  of,  The  Chesnut  Tree for  a  hundred  horses ; 
and  is  one  hundred  and  sixty  feet  in  circumference,  but 
quite  hollow  within.  The  people  have  built  a  house  in 
the  cavity  of  this  enormous  mass.  At  Tortworth  in 
Gloucestershire,  is  a  Chesnut  tree,  fifty-two  feet  in  cir¬ 
cumference,  which  is  probably  near  one  thousand  years 


old. 


CHINA  ROOT. 


F.  Squine,  Esquine. 

G.  China.'vjurz.el. 

D .  Chinanuortel. 

1.  Radice  China . 

S.  Raiz  China ,  Cocolmeca. 
P.  Esquina ,  Euhineza ,  Raiz 


DA.  Chinardo . 

SW.  Cbinarot . 

POL  Chyna ,  korzen. 

R.  Keren  tschaputinsku. 
L,  Radix  chin  re ,  S  mi  lax. 


da  China . 


This  root  comes  from  the  West  and  East  Indies,  and  is 
composed  of  many  thick  fleshy  fibres,  which  spread  wide 
on  every  side,  and  strike  deep  into  the  ground;  from 
which  come  out  several  stalks;  taper,  very  strong,  and 
armed  with  short  stiff  pines.  They  fasten  themselves  by 
their  claspers  to  the  neighbouring  trees,  and  rise  twenty 
feet  high  and  upwards.  The  root  is  without  either  taste 
or  smell,  heavy,  woody,  hard,  and  beset  with  unequal  tu¬ 
bercles.  The  colour  of  that  coming  from  the  West  In¬ 
dies  is  on  the  outside  of  a  dusky  red,  but  within  of  a  red¬ 
dish  white;  the  Oriental  root,  is  of  a  blackish  cast,  and 
more  valuable. 

This  article  enters  into  the  materia  medica,  but  its  vir¬ 
tues  in  venereal  cases  are  not  now  in  such  repute  as  for¬ 
merly. 


80 


CINNABAR. 


F.  Cinnahre . 

G.  Zinnober. 

D.  Cinaber ,  Vertnilioen. 
I.  Cinabro. 

S.  Cinabrio. 

P.  Cinabrio . 


DA.  Zinober . 
SW.  Cinnober. 
POL.  Cynobr , 
R .  Kino<war. 

L  Cinnabrium 


Cinnabar  is  a  mineral  stone,  red,  heavy,  and  brilliant. 
It  is  either  native  or  artificial.  Native  Cinnabar,  in  which 
quicksilver  is  mineralised  by  sulphur,  is  of  different  shades, 
from  a  yellowish  to  a  deep  red.  A  hundred  parts  of  Cin¬ 
nabar  contain  about  eighty  of  quicksilver,  and  twenty  of 
sulphur;  but  artificial  Cinnabar  contains  a  little  more  sul¬ 
phur,  and  hence  its  colour  is  darker.  It  is  obtained  by 
sublimation,  and  thus  reduced  into  a  fine  red  glebe.  The 
best  is  of  a  high  red  colour,  and  full  of  fibres,  like  needles. 

The  chief  use  of  Cinnabar  is  for  p  unting.  Lumps  of 
it  are  of  a  deep  brown  red,  without  brilliancy;  but  when 
the  too  great  intensity  of  its  colour  is  diminished  by 
bruising  and  dividing  it  into  small  parts,  the  red  of  the 
Cinnabar  becomes  more  and  more  exalted,  flame  coloured, 
and  exceedingly  vivid  and  brilliant:  in  this  state  it  is 
called  Vermillion ,  cr  Cinnabar  in  flowers. 

Native  Cinnabar  is  found  in  ihe  Duchy  of  Deux  Ponts, 
in  the  Palatinate,  in  Hungary,  Friuli,  at  Almaden  in 
Spain,  &c. 

The  finer  coloured  ores  of  quicksilver  are  never  worked 
for  extracting  the  .metal,  but  used  entirely  as  pigments; 
they  have  been  veby  injudiciously  preferred  for  medicinal 
uses,  to  the  more  pure  factitious  Cinnabars. 


CINNAMON. 


F.  Canelle  de  Ceylan . 

G.  Zimmet ,  Kanebl. 
D .  Caned. 

I.  Cane l la. 

S  Caneh . 

P.  Cornelia 


DA.  Can  eel. 

SW.  Cunel. 

POL.  Cynamom. 

R  Koriza. 

L.  Cinnamomum ,  Canella. 


Cinnamon  is  the  bark  of  the  laurus  cinnamomum. 
There  is  a  base  kind  of  Cinnamon,  obtained  from  the 
laurus  cassia,  for  which  see  Cassia  Lignea. 


8i 


The  cinnamon  tree  is  a  native  of  Ceylon,  It  has  a  large 
root,  and  divides  into  several  branches,  covered  with  a 
bark,  which  on  the  outer  side  is  of  a  greyish  brown,  and  on 
the  inside  of  a  reddish  cast.  The  body  of  the  tree,  which 
grows  to  the  height  of  twenty  or  thirty  feet,  is  covered,  as 
well  as  its  numerous  branches,  with  a  bark,  which  at  first 
is  green,  and  afterwards  red.  The  leaf  is  three-nerved; 
when  first  unfolded,  it  is  of  a  flame  colour,  but  afterwards 
changes  to  a  green.  The  flowers  are  small  and  white.  The 
fruit  is  shaped  something  like  an  acorn,  but  is  not  so 
large. 

Cinnamon  is  the  under  bark  of  the  Cinnamon  tree. 
The  best  season  for  separating  it  from  the  outer  bark, 
which  is  grey  and  rugged,  is  the  spring,  when  the  sap 
flows  in  the  greatest  abundance.  It  is  cut  into  thin  slices, 
and  exposed  to  the  sun,  and  curls  up  in  drying.  The  old 
trees  produce  a  coarse  kind  of  Cinnamon,  and  the  spice  is 
in  perfection  only,  when  the  trees  are  not  older  than  three 
or  four  years.  When  .the  trunk  has  been  stripped  of  its 
bark,  it  receives  no  further  nourishment,  but  the  root  is 
still  alive,  and  continues  to  throw  out  fresh  shoots.  The 
Cinnamon  is  not  reckoned  excellent,  unless  it  be  fine, 
smooth,  brittle,  thin,  of  a  yellow  colour  inclining  to  red, 
fragrant,  aromatic,  and  of  a  poignant,  vet  agreeable  taste. 
The  connoisseurs  give  the  preference  to  that,  the  pieces 
of  which  are  long  and  slender.  It  comes  to  us  generally 
mixed  with  cassia  lignea,  though  the  latter  is  easily  dis¬ 
tinguished.  Cinnamon  splinters  in  breaking,  and  has  a 
roughness  along  with  its  aromatic  flavour;  while  the  cassia 
breaks  over  smooth,  and  has  a  mucilaginous  taste.  Cin¬ 
namon  is  a  very  useful  and  elegant  aromatic,  mere  grate¬ 
ful,  both  to  the  palate  and  stomach,  than  most  other  sub¬ 
stances  of  this  class.  By  its  astringent  quality,  it  likewise 
corroborates  the  viscera. 

It  is  supposed  that  Ceylon  yields  a  million  of  pounds  of 
Cinnamon  annually;  and  as  only  600,0001b.  thereof  were 
sold,  during  the  time  the  island  belonged  to  the  Dutch, 
the  rest  was  destroyed,  in  order  to  keep  up  the  price. 

The  cinnamon  tree  is  now  likewise  cultivated  in  Ja¬ 
maica,  and  the  Cinnamon  produced,  is  said  to  be  by  no 
means  inferior  to  that  coming  from  the  East  Indies. 


L 


82 


CIVET. 


F  Civetie. 
G.  Zibeth . 
D  Civet . 

I.  Zibetto . 
S .  A -gait  a, 
P.  Algalia. 


DA.  Zibet . 
SW.  Zibet. 
POL.  Zybet . 
R.  Zibet. 

L.  Zibeth  um 


Civet  is  a  kind  of  perfume,  which  bears  its  name  from 
the  Civet  Cat,  the  animal  it  is  taken  from. 

Good  Civet  is  of  a  clear,  yellowish  or  brownish  colour*, 
not  fluid  nor  hard,  but  about  the  consistence  of  butter  or 
honey,  and  uniform  throughout;  of  a  very  strong  smell, 
quite  offensive  when  undiluted,  but  agreeable,  when  only 
a  small  portion  of  Qivet  is  mixed  with  a  large  one  of  other 
substances.  It  unites  easily  with  oils,  both  expressed  and 
distilled,  but  not  at  all  with  water  or  spirit  of  wine.  It 
communicates  however  some  share  of  its  smell,  both  to 
watery^  and  spirituous  liquors,  by  being  suspended  in  the 
still  head  during  distillation.  The  Italians  make  it  an  in¬ 
gredient  in  perfumed  oils,  and  thus  obtain  the  whole  of 
its  scent:  for  oils  wholly  dissolve  the  substance  of  it. 

It  is  very  rare,  to  meet  with  Civet  unadulterated.  The 
substances  usually  mixed  with  it,  are  lard  and  butter;  and 
it  is  impossible  to  distinguish  the  adulteration. 

A  great  trade  of  Civet  is  carried  on  at  Callicut,  Bassora, 
and  other  parts  of  the  East  Indies,  and  in  Africa,  where 
the  animal  that  produces  the  perfume  is  found.  It  is 
mostly  used  by  confectioners  and  perfumers. 


CLOVER  SEED. 


F.  Gratae  de  treJJe. 

G.  Kleeiaat. 

D.  Klaver  zaad. 

I.  Semenza  di  irifoglio. 
S.  Semi l la  de  trtbol. 

P.  Semente  de  trevo . 


DA.  Kiev er Jro. 

SW.  Vaplingfro. 
POL.  Koniez,  Konik . 
R.  Trilistnik. 

L.  Trlfolium. 


There  are  forty-six  species  of  Clover,  of  which  two 
principally  deserve  our  notice,  on  account  of  the  seed. 


83 


First,  the  white  creeping  trefoil,  trifolium  pratense  or 
Dutch  Clover.  It  grows  in  England,  Holland,  and  Ger¬ 
many;  and  its  white  seed  is  brought  to  us  in  considerably 
quantities  from  the  two  latter  countries. 

Then,  the  purple  or  red  Clover,  trifolium  pratense. 
This  is  the  species,  most  cultivated  as  food  for  cattle. 
The  finest  seed  grows  in  this  country,  but  large  quantities 
are  brought  to  .us  „  from  Germany,  Holland,  Brabant, 
Flanders,  and  the  northern  coast  of  France,  as  far  as 
Bourdeaux.  Amongst  the  foreign  red  seed,  that  coming 
from  Brabant  and  Flanders,  seems  to  deserve  the  prefer¬ 
ence,  on  account  of  its  bright  red  colour,  shaded  with  blue 
and  yellow. 

White,  is  generally  dearer,  than  red  Clover  seed. 

In  purchasing  Clover  seed,  particular  attention  should  be 
paid  to  its  being  new,  of  a  bright,  lively  colour;  the 
grains  large,  full,  and  heavy;  and  the  mass  perfedtly  free 
from  all  seeds  of  weeds,  and  other  extraneous  bodies. 


CLOVES. 


F.  Cloux  deGirojle. 

G .  Gcvourznelken . 

D.  Kruidnagelen,  Gercjjtes, 

I,  Chio'vi  di  Garofano ,  Ga ~ 
rofani ,  Garojfoli . 

S.  Clavos  de  Especiay  Cla- 
f viilos . 


P.  Cravos  da  India ,  Cra<vos 
girofes . 

DA  Nelliker y  Krydenelliker. 
SW.  Kryddeneglikor . 

POL.  Gozdziki  kramne. 

R.  Guvosdika, 

L.  Caryophylli. 


The  caryophyllus  aromaticus,  or  Clove  tree,  is  a  native 
of  the  Molucca  islands,  particularly  of  Amboyna,  where  it 
is  principally  cultivated.  It  resembles  the  birch  tree  in 
appearance,  and  its  bark  is  thin  and  smooth,  like  that  of 
the  beech.  No  verdure  is  even  seen  under  it.  Its  trunk, 
which  is  composed  of  an  exceedingly  hard  wood,  does  not 
rise  to  any  height,  but  divides  itself  into  several  principal 
branches,  the  boughs  of  which  are  covered  with  leaves 
and  flowers  in  the  month  of  March.  The  leaves  are  al¬ 
ways  placed  opposite  to  each  other,  dotted,  smooth,  and 
not  serated,  almost  resembling  in  form  and  consistence 
those  of  the  laurel.  At  the  extremities  of  the  branches, 
vast  quantities  of  flowers  are  produced,  which  are  first 


84 


white,  then  green,  and  at  last  pretty  red  and  hard  When 
they  arrive  at  this  degree  of  maturity,  they  are,  properly 
speaking,  Cloves.  As  they  dry,  they  assume  a  dark  yel¬ 
lowish  cast;  and  when  gathered,  become  of  a  deep  brown. 
The  season  for  gathering  them,  is  from  October  to  Fe¬ 
bruary.  The  boughs  of  the  trees  are  then  strongly  shaken, 
or  the  Cloves  beat  down,  with  long  reeds.  Large  cloths 
are  spread  to  receive  them,  and  they  are  afterwards  ex¬ 
posed  for  a  few  days,  upon  hurdles,  to  the  smoke  of  the 
bamboo  cane.  This  fumigation,  to  which  the  heat  of  a 
stove  might  perhaps  be  substituted  to  advantage,  is  fol¬ 
lowed  by  drying  the  cloves  in  the  sun.  Those  cloves, 
which  are  purposely  left  upon  the  tree,  or  which  escape 
the  notice  of  those  who  gather  them,  continue  to  grow, 
till  they  are  about  an  inch  in  thickness;  and  falling  off, 
produce  new  plants,  which  do  not  bear  in  less  than  eight 
or  nine  years. 

The  clove,  to  be  in  perfe&ion,  must  be  full  sized,  heavy, 
oily,  and  easily  broken;  of  a  fine  smell,  and  hot  aromatic 
taste;  so  as  almost  to  burn  the  throat.  In  the  East  Indies, 
and  also  in  some  parts  of  Europe,  cloves  are  so  much  ad¬ 
mired,  as  to  be  thought  an  indispensable  ingredient  in 
nearly  every  dish.  They  are  put  into  food,  liquors,  wine, 
and  enter  likewise  the  composition  of  perfumes. 

In  medicine,  cloves  possess  in  an  eminent  degree,  the 
general  virtues  of  hot,  stimulating  aromatics. 

No  part  of  any  plant  contains  so  much  oil  as  cloves  do. 
Cloves  acquire  weight  by  imbibing  water;  which  they  will 
do  at  some  considerable  distance.  For  this  reason  the 
Dutch,  after  they  have  sold  their  cloves,  hang  them,  be¬ 
fore  the  weighing,  over  water,  at  about  two  feet  distance 
from  it. 

In  Amboyna,  the  Dutch  East  India  Company  had 
500,000  cloves  trees,  which  produced  more  than  a  million 
pounds  of  cloves  annually. 


COALS;  see  Pit  •coals. 


85 


COBALT. 


F  Cobalt . 
G.  Kobolt. 
D  Kobuld. 
I.  Cobalto. 

S  Cobal>  o. 


D  4 .  Kobold. 
SW.  Cobolt. 
POL.  Kobolt 
R.  Kobolt. 

L.  Cobalt um. 


P.  Cobalto. 

What  we  have  commonly  under  the  name  of  Cobalt  is 
only  a  calx.  Regulus  of  Cobalt,  or  more  properly,  pure 
Cobalt  itself  in  a  metallic  form,  is  a  semimetal  of  a  red¬ 
dish  white  colour,  close  grained,  so  as  to  be  easily  redu¬ 
cible  to  powder,  about  7.  7  of  specific  gravity,  and  forming 
itself  into  masses  of  a  needle-like  texture,  placed  upon  one 
another. 

The  calx  of  Cobalt  has  the  property,  that  it  can  be 
melted  into  a  blue  glass,  called  smalts ,  for  which  see  under 
that  head. 

When  Cobalt  is  first  roasted  and  freed  from  the  foreign 
mineral  bodies,  particularly  bismuth  and  arsenic,  with 
which  it  is  united,  it  is  then  well  calcined,  and  sold  either 
mixed  or  unmixed  with  fine  sand,  under  the  name  of 
z ajfer.  It  is  of  a  grey  colour,  and  zaffer  therefore  is  an 
impure  calx  of  Cobalt.  »  ’ 

The  solution  of  Cobalt  in  aqua  regia  has  been  long 
known  as  a  sympathetic  ink. 

Cobalt  is  found  in  Saxony,  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Eng¬ 
land;  particularly  in  Somersetshire  and  Cornwall;  but  Sax¬ 
ony  seems  to  be  the  only  country  where  the  working  of 
the  Cobalt  mines  is  much  attended  to.  It  is  principally 
exported  from  thence,  reduced  into  zaffer,  to  Holland; 
where  it  is  prepared  into  smalts. 


COCCULUS  INDICUS, 


Is  the  berry  of  an  oriental  plant,  a  species  of  solanum, 
producing  the  fruit  in  clusters  like  grapes.  These 
berries,  are  partly  about  the  size  of  bay-berries,  and 
partly  about  that  of  chick-peas;  roundish  but  hollowed 
in  a  little  towards  the  stalk,  and  approaching  to  a  kid¬ 
ney  shape;  rough  on  the  outside,  and  of  a  grey  brown- 


86 


ish  or  blackish  colour.  The  fresher  they  are,  the  heavier* 
the  older,  the  drier  and  lighter.  This  berry  is  principally 
employed  in  ointments  for  destroying  cutaneous  insects, 
and  in  fishing.  It  is  brought  to  us  from  Alexandria  and 
other  parts  of  the  Levant,  also  from  the  coast  of  Malabar. 


COCHINEAL. 


F .  Cochenille . 

G.  Koscheml. 

D.  Conchenilje. 

I  Cocciniglia. 

S.  Cochinillciy  Grana. 
P.  Cochenilha. 


DA.  Cochenille  % 

SW.  Cochenille. 

POL  Cochenilha • 

R.  Konssenel. 

L.  Cochinella ,  Cocci -cacti. 


The  Cochineal  insert,  to  which  we  owe  our  beautiful 
scarlet  and  purple  colours,  has  not  yet  been  found  any 
where  but  in  Mexico. 

It  is  asserted,  from  the  testimony  of  the  best  writers, 
that  the  nature  of  this  colour  was  not  known  till  the  year 
1692,  when  father  Plumier  Pomet  gave  an  account  of  its 
being  an  animal-,  and  that  before  this  period,  the  world 
knew  nothing  more  of  it,  than  that  it  was  gathered  from 
certain  plants  in  Mexico*  on  which  account  it  was  naturally 
supposed  to  be  a  seed.  <IJpon  searching  into  the  originals 
however,  we  find,  that  Acosta  in  1530,  and  Herrera  in 
1601,  had  described  it,  as  well  as  our  modern  naturalists. 

The  Cochineal  is  an  insert  much  of  the  size  and  shape 
of  a  bug.  It  is  bred  upon  the  nopal,  caftus,  or  Indian  fig, 
a  shrub  common  ail  over  New  Spain,  about  five  feet  high. 
Its  stem  is  fleshy,  large,  flattened,  downy,  and  covered  with 
clusters  of  thorns.  It  branches  out  very  much,  and  grows 
narrow,  as  well  as  its  branches,  at  every  point  of  ramifica¬ 
tion*  this  gives  to  each  portion  of  the  plant  thus  made  nar¬ 
row,  the  form  of  an  oval,  thick,  and  thorny  leaf.  It  has 
no  other  leaves  but  these.  Its  flowers  scattered  o^er  the 
young  stems,  are  succeeded  by  a  fruit  that  is  fit  for  eating, 
and  resembles  a  fig. 

The  Cochineal  inseff,  like  all  others,  is  of  two  sexes, 
but  which  are  exceedingly  dissimilar  in  their  appearance. 
The  female,  which  alone  is  valuable  for  its  colour,  has  the 
eyes,  mouth  and  antennae  fixed  so  deep,  and  so  concealed 


87 


in  the  folds  of  the  skin,  that  it  is  impossible  to  distinguish 
them  without  a  microscope.  From  the  first  instant  of  its 
birth  almost,  it  remains  attached  to  one  point  of  the  plant, 
by  a  kind  of  trunk,  and  presents  to  the  eye  only  an  he¬ 
mispherical  crust.  This  covering  is  changed  twice  in 
twenty  five  days,  and  is  sprinkled  over  with  a  white  and 
thick  dust,  which  is  immiscible  with  water.  At  this  pe¬ 
riod,  which  is  that  of  puberty,  the  male,  which  is  much 
smaller,  active,  and  more  slightly  made,  issues  out  of  a  fa¬ 
rinaceous  tube,  by  means  of  wings  with  which  he  is  pro¬ 
vided.  He  flutters  over  the  immoveable  females,  fixes 
upon  each  of  them,  and  soon  perishes  after  foecundation. 
The  male  is  very  scarce,  and  one  is  said  to  be  sufficient  for 
three  hundred  females  or  more.  The  bulk  of  the  female, 
now*  visibly  enlarges,  till  a  drop  of  liquid,  W’hich  escapes 
from  under  her,  shews  that  the  eggs,  which  are  in  great 
number,  will  soon  make  their  appearance.  The  little  in¬ 
serts  burst  their  covering  at  the  time  of  their  birth,  and 
soon  spread  themselves  over  the  plant,  to  choose  a  favour¬ 
able  spot  to  fix  upon.  They  particularly  endeavour  to 
shelter  themselves  from  the  east  wind.  Accordingly,  the 
nopal,  when  viewed  on  that  side,  appears  quite  green, 
while  upon  the  opposite  side,  it  is  full  of  the  insets  and 
white. 

The  best  method  of  keeping  the  nopal  plantations  in 
order,  is  to  replant  them  every  six  years,  by  putting  several 
pieces  of  the  stems,  into  cavities  of  some  depth.  They 
must  be  weeded  frequently,  but  with  precaution,  in  order 
not  to  disturb  the  insert.  The  cultivator  must  also  take 
care,  to  get  rid  of  the  animals  that  would  destroy  the 
plant,  the  most  formidable  of  which  is  a  caterpillar,  which 
makes  its  way  even  through  the  inside  of  the  plant,  and 
attacks  the  insert  from  underneath. 

Eighteen  months  after  the  planting,  small  nests  cf 
twelve  or  fifteen  females,  ready  to  lay  their  eggs,  are  fixed 
upon  the  nopal,  at  certain  distances.  The  little  ones  which 
come  out,  attain  their  full  growth  in  two  months,  which 
is  the  limited  duration  of  their  life.  They  are  then  ga¬ 
thered,  and  this  operation  is  renewed  every  two  months 
from  O&ober  to  May.  This  crop  is  to  be  gathered  some 
days  before  the  laying  of  the  eggs,  either  to  prevent  the 
loss  of  the  eggs,  which  are  rich  in  colour,  or  to  hinder  the 
little  ones  from  fixing  upon  a  plant,  which  is  already  ex¬ 
hausted,  and  must  be  left  to  itself  for  a  few  months. 


88 


Immediately  before  the  rainy  season  comes  on,  in  order 
to  prevent  the  total  destrudfion  of  the  Cochineals,  which 
might  be  occasioned  by  the  unwholesomeness  of  the  air, 
the  branches  of  the  nopal,  loaded  with  infant  insedls,  are 
cut  off.  These  branches  are  laid  up  in  the  houses,  where 
they  maintain  their  freshness,  as  all  mucilaginous  plants 
do.  Here  the  Cochineals  thrive  during  the  bad  season. 
As  soon  as  that  is  passed,  they  are  placed  on  the  trees, 
where  the  vivifying  freshness  of  the  air,  soon  makes  them 
propagate. 

The  Cochineal  insedt  may  in  some  circumstances  be 
compared  to  the  silkworm,  particularly  in  the  way  of  de¬ 
positing  its  eggs.  The  insedfs  destined  for  this  purpose, 
are  taken  at  a  proper  time  of  their  growth,  and  put  into  a 
box  well  closed,  and  lined  with  a  coarse  cloth;  and  in  this 
confinement  they  lay  their  eggs  and  die.  The  box  is  kept 
close  shut,  till  the  time  of  placing  the  eggs  on  the  nopal; 
when,  if  any  motion  is  perceived,  it  is  a  sufficient  indica¬ 
tion,  that  the  animalcule  has  life,  though  the  egg  is  so 
minute,  as  hardly  to  be  perceived. 

When  the  Cochineal  is  gathered  from  the  nopal,  it  is 
put  into  pots  of  earthen  ware,  where  it  is  killed,  and  then 
packed  in  serrons.  The  Mexicans  have  three  different 
ways  of  killing  them:  one  by  hot  water,  another  by  fire, 
and  the  third  by  the  rays  of  the  sun;  whereof  the  latter 
seems  to  deserve  the  preference:  and  great  precaution  is 
requisite  in  either  method,  to  preserve  the  good  colour. 
To  the  different  ways  of  killing  this  insedl,  are  owing  the 
several  gradations  of  the  colour. 

The  wild  Cochineal,  a  different  species  from  the  fine  or 
mestique  Cochineal,  we  have  been  speaking  of,  but  culti¬ 
vated  in  the  same  places,  and  on  the  same  plant,  does  not 
require  as  much  care  and  precaution.  It  is  a  more  hardy 
insedf,  and  bears  the  injuries  of  the  air  better.  The  crop 
of  it  is  consequently  less  variable  in  the  produce,  and  may 
be  gathered  all  the  year.  This  insedt  is  less  abounding  in 
colour  than  the  other,  but  as  its  produce  is  more  certain, 
and  its  price  equivalent  to  two  thirds  of  that  of  the  fine 
sort,  it  may  be  cultivated  to  advantage.  This  species  is 
also  found  in  Peru. 

Though  the  Cochineal  belongs  to  the  animal  kingdom, 
of  all  others  the  most  likely  to  corrupt,  yet  it  never  spoils, 
if  kept  dry. 


89 


This  valuable  production  would  probably  succeed  in 
different  parts  of  Mexico;  but  hitherto  scarce  any,  besides 
the  province  of  Oaxaca,  has  seriously  attended  to  it. 
Each  acre  of  nopal  plants,  produces  as  much  as  two  quin¬ 
tals  of  fine  Cochineal,  with  the  attendance  of  one  man. 
Exclusive  of  what  is  consumed  by  America  and  the  Phi¬ 
lippines,  Europe  receives  annually  four  thousand  quintals 
of  fine  Cochineal,  two  hundred  quintals  of  gramlla,  a  hun¬ 
dred  quintals  of  cochineal  dust,  and  three  hundred  quin¬ 
tals  of  the  wild  cochineal. 

The  principal  countries  where  the  cochineal  insects  are 
bred,  are  Oaxaca,  Tlascala,  Chulula,  Nueva  Gallicia,  and 
Chiapa,  all  in  Mexico;  and  Kambato,  Loja,  andTucuman, 
in  Peru:  but  it  is  only  in  Oaxaca  that  they  are  gathered 
in  large  quantities,  and  form  a  branch  of  commerce. 
Their  cultivation  has  been  successfully  attempted  in  the 
French  part  of  St.  Domingo. 

The  cochineal  in  the  state  in  which  it  is  brought  to  us, 
is  in  small  bodies  of  an  irregular  figure,  usually  convex, 
ridged,  and  furrowed  on  one  side,  and  concave  on  the 
other.  The  colour  of  the  best  is  a  purplish  grey,  pow¬ 
dered  over  with  a  sort  of  white  dust.  This  is  called  silver 
cochineal. 

Cochineal  is  highly  valued,  in  every  part  of  the  world, 
for  the  incomparable  beauty  of  its  red  colour,  which  it 
readily  communicates  to  wool  and  silk,  but  with  more  dif¬ 
ficulty  to  linen  and  cotton.  It  is  principally  used  by  dyers 
for  preparing  crimsons  and  scarlets.  The  red  colour 
called  carmine  is  also  made  from  cochineal.  In  medicine, 
cochineal  is  used  as  a  cordiac,  sudorific,  alexipharmic,  and 
febrifuge. 

It  is  well  known,  that  the  caftus  or  nopal  plant,  bears  a 
succulent  fruit  or  berry  at  the  extremity  of  its  leaves, 
filled  with  a  juice  of  a  delicate  red  colour,  and  agreeable 
taste.  This  juice  is  the  natural  food  of  the  cochineal  in- 
se£t,  which  owes  to  it,  the  value  and  property  it  possesses, 
'as  a  red  dye.  Whence  it  follows,  that  the  juice  itself,  if 
brought  to  a  consistence,  must  yield  a  true  and  perfect 
colour,  lively  and  brilliant  as  we  find  it  in  its  natural  state. 
Upon  this  hypothesis  Mr.  David  Riz,  of  Kingston,  in  Ja¬ 
maica,  made  experiments,  to  obtain  from  the  plant  artifi¬ 
cially,  what  nature  accomplished  in  the  inseff,  and  at 
length  hapoilv  succeeded  bv  inspissating  the  iuice.  After 
M 


1 


a-  number  of  experiments,  he  found  one  process  which 
communicated  a  crimson  colour  to  silk  and  wool,  superior 
to  that  given  by  cochineal.  He  came  to  England,  and 
trials  of  the  same  were  made,  before  a  number  of  the 
principal  dyers  in  and  about  London,  at  the  museum  of 
the  Royal  Society.  He  also  found  two  other  processes, 
which  promised,  with  very  little  alteration  in  their  manu¬ 
factory,  to  afford  the  colourmaking  dyes  of  scarlet  and 
purple.  Upon  a  moderate  calculation  it  was  found,  that 
this  colour  would  go  further,  than  three  times  the  quan¬ 
tity  of  cochineal,  which  he  accounted  for  by  remarking, 
that  there  is  a  great  part  of  the  insect,  as  its  skin,  &c. 
which  affords  no  dye;  but  that  the  whole  of  his  process, 
was  genuine  colour,  with  little  or  no  impurity. 

Notwithstanding  the  advantages  that  might  be  derived 
to  the  nation,  from  this  gentleman’s  discovery,  he  met. 
upon  the  whole  with  very  little  encouragement  to  prose¬ 
cute  his  manufacture;  though  the  sums  annually  expended 
in  the  purchase  of  cochineal  from  the  Spaniards  are  very- 
large,  and  thousands  of  acres,  now  waste  in  Jamaica, 
might  be  cultivated  with  this  plant,  with  little  trouble  and 
expense,  and  a  quantity  obtained,  answerable  to  the  home 
demand. 


COCOA,  CACAO. 


F.  Cacao. 

G.  Kakao  % 

D.  Kakau. 

I.  Cacao ,  Caccao. 
S.  Cacao . 

P.  Cacao . 


DA.  Kakao. 

SW.  Kakao . 

POL.  Kakaowy  or  zed 
R.  Kakao. 

L.  Cacao. 


Cocoa  is  the  seed  of  the  fruit  of  the  theobroma  cacao, 
or  Cocoa  tree,  growing  particularly  at  Caraccas,  Marignan, 
the  French  islands,  Surinam,  &c. 

The  most  proper  soil  for  the  Cocoa  tree,  is  a  moist, 
rich,  and  deep  earth.  For  the  propagation  of  the  plant, 
some  of  the  largest,  finest  pods  are  selected,  the  nuts  taken 
out,  and  thrown  in  water  till  they  appear  just  ready  to 
sprout;  they  are  then  put  in  the  ground,  and  in  about 
eight  or  ten  days  time,  the  plants  will  appear  above  the 


91 


fciould.  The  young  plants  are  so  susceptible  of  injuries 
from  strong  winds,  a  too  hot  sun,  or  great  droughts,  that 
they  cannot  be  too  well  secured  against  such  accidents. 
For  this  reason,  the  most  sheltered  situation  must  be  cho¬ 
sen  for  them.  In  two  years  time,  the  plants  having  grown 
to  the  height  of  about  five  feet,  will  begin  to  flower;  these 
first  blossoms  are  always  plucked  off,  that  they  may  not 
impair  the  vigour  of  the  trees.  Their  fruit  is  not  allowed 
to  remain  for  maturity,  till  the  third  year,  and  then  only 
so  much  as  seems  proportionate  to  the  strength  of  each 
tree.  In  the  fourth  year  they  are  permitted  to  bear  a 
moderate  crop.  When  planted  in  a  good  soil  and  pro¬ 
perly  managed,  they  will  continue  vigorous  and  fruitful  for 
thirty  years.  They  bear  two  crops  a  year;  the  greatest  in 
December  or  January,  the  other  in  May;  and  from  the 
time  the  flowers  drop  off,  to  the  maturity  of  the  fruit,  is 
about  four  months.  The  time  of  maturity  is  known,  by 
the  yellowness  of  the  pods,  and  the  rattling  of  the  nuts  or 
kernels,  when  the  pods  are  shaken.  The  latter  are  then 
plucked,  and  after  laying  them  in  heaps  for  three  or  four 
days  to  sweat,  the  nuts  are  picked  out,  and  leaving  the 
pulp,  if  any  remains  upon  them,  they  are*  exposed  to  the 
sun  every  day,  for  a  month.  It  is  best  not  to  wash  off  the 
pulp,  as  it  makes  them  keep  the  longer.  The  pods  con¬ 
tain  from  ten  to  twenty,  and  even  thirty  nuts.  The  pro¬ 
duce  of  one  tree  in  good  soil,  is  estimated  at  about  twenty 
pounds  weight  of  nuts,  but  the  produce  of  a  tree  in  poor 
soil  and  under  bad  management,  rarely  exceeds  eight 
pounds. 

Cocoa  to  be  good,  ought  to  have  a  very  brown  and 
pretty  even  skin  or  peel,  which  when  taken  off,  the  ker¬ 
nel  ought  to  appear  full,  plump,  and  shining,  of  a  hazle 
nut  colour,  very  dark  on  the  outside,  and  a  little  more  red¬ 
dish  within,  of  a  bitterish  and  astringent  taste,  without  any 
greenish  or  musty  savour,  and  not  worm-eaten.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  oily  fruits  which  nature  produces,  and  has  the 
advantage,  that  how  old  soever  it  be,  it  never  grows  rank, 
as  all  other  fruits  do,  which  have  any  analogy  with  this; 
such  as  almonds,  the  kernels  of  pine  apples,  pistachio  nuts, 
Sec.  The  Cocoa  tree  once  grew  so  plentifully  in  Jamaica, 
that  the  inhabitants  flattered  themselves,  it  would  become 
the  source  of  inexhaustible  wealth  to  them.  In  1671 
there  were  sixty  fine  walks  in  bearing,  and  many  new 


92 


ones  in  cultivation;  but  some  years  afterwards,  they  were 
all  destroyed  at  once,  as  it  is  said,  by  a  blast,  which  per¬ 
vaded  the  whole  island;  so  that  they  were  never  afterwards 
recovered;  and  at  present,  there  are  but  very  few;  the 
greatest  discouragement  in  going  upon  this  article,  being 
the  extreme  tenderness  of  the  young  plants,  and  the 
length  of  time  they  require,  to  come  to  maturity. 

The  best  Cocoa  comes  from  Caraccas;  but  it  is  very 
seldom  to  be  met  with  in  this  country. 

Cocoa  is  the  chief  ingredient  for  making  chocolate,  and 
is  also  of  itself  a  wholesome  nourishing  food. 


COCO  NUTS,  cocos  nuts. 


F.  Cocos 

G.  Konosn'usse 

D.  ICokosnooten ,  Kalappus- 

neoten . 

I .  Coe  chi, 

S.  Cocos, 


P.  Cocos, 

DA.  Kokosnoedder\ 
SW  Kokosnoetter , 
POL  Kokos, 

R.  Kokos. 

L.  Nuces  Indices, 


Coco  nuts  are  the  fruit  of  the  cocos  nucifera,  a  tree, 
supposed  to  be  a  native  of  the  Malaive  and  some  desert 
islands  in  the  East  Indies;  and  from  thence  to  have  been 
transported  to  all  the  warm  parts  of  America.  This  tree 
frequently  rises  sixty  feet  high.  The  body  of  the  trunk, 
which  generally  leans  to  one  side  occasioned,  as  is  sup¬ 
posed,  by  the  great  weight  of  nuts  it  sustains  when  young, 
is  the  exadt  shape  of  an  apothecary’s  large  iron  pestle, 
being  of  an  equal  thickness  at  top  and  at  bottom,  but 
somewhat  smaller  in  the  middle;  its  colour  is  a  pale  brown 
throughout,  and  the  bark  smooth.  The  leaves  or  branches, 
are  often  fourreen  or  fifteen  feet  long,  about  twenty-eight 
in  number,  winged,  of  a  yellow  colour,  straight  and  taper¬ 
ing.  The  pinnae  or  partial  leaves  are  green,  often  three 
feet  long  next  the  trunk,  but  diminishing  towards  the  ex¬ 
tremity  of  the  branches.  The  nuts  of  the  size  and  shape 
of  a  small  melon,  hang  at  the  top  of  the  trunk,  in  clusters 
of  a  dozen  in  each.  The  pulp  which  lines  the  inside  of 
these  nuts,  supplies  a  wholesome  kind  of  food,  from  which 
is  expressed  an  oil,  very  sweet  when  fresh,  and  much  used 


93 


in  India;  but  it  contracts  a  bitter  taste  when  kept  long, 
and  is  then  only  fit  for  burning. 

The  centre  of  the  nut  is  filled  with  a  clear,  refreshing, 
sweetish  kind  of  liquid;  the  quantity  of  it  in  a  full  grown 
nut,  being  frequently  a  pint  and  upwards.  This  is  a  most 
cooling,  wholesome  beverage  in  sukry  climates.  In  old 
nuts,  this  fluid  disappears,  and  changes  into  a  hard  kernel, 
which  at  last  fills  the  whole  inside,  being  as  white  as 
snow,  and  of  the  flavour  of  an  almond;  this  kernel  serves 
for  the  propagation  of  the  plant,  and  the  Europeans  grate 
it,  to  make  a  kind  of  almond  emulsion,  from  which  they 
prepare  currie  soup  and  other  palatable  dishes. 

The  shells  of  these  nuts,  being  tipped  with  silver,  are 
frequently  used  for  drinking  bowls,  sugar  cans,  &c.  The 
bark  of  the  tree,  may  be  wrought  into  cordage;  and  the 
leaves  into  baskets,  brooms,  hammocks  in  form  of  nets, 
mats,  sacks,  and  other  useful  utensils. 

If  the  buds  of  the  flowers  be  cut  off,  before  they  are 
perfectly  unfolded,  a  white  liquor  runs  from  them,  which 
is  of  a  sweet  taste  while  it  continues  fresh.  It  afterwards 
turns  sour,  and  makes  good  vinegar.  When  distilled  in 
its  highest  perfection,  it  produces  a  strong  brandy;  and 
boiled  with  quicklime,  yields  a  middling  kind  of  sugar. 


D-FlfiH. 


F.  Morue ,  Cabillaud. 

G.  Kabliau,  Bakalau. 

D.  Kabeljaau'w ,  Bakkel- 

jaaunv, 

I.  Baccalay  Baccalare. 

S.  Bacalao . 


P.  Bacalbao , 

DA.  Kabliau ,  Skreitorsk , 
j Bake  l au. 

SW.  Kabeljo,  Bakelau. 

L.  Gaaus  morbua . 


The  common  Cod  is  cinerous  on  the  back  and  sides, 
and  commonly  spotted  with  yellow;  its  length  does  not 
exceed  three  feet,  and  is  often  less;  the  belly  is  white: 
but  they  vary  much,  not  only  in  the  colour,  but  in  shape, 
particularly  that  of  the  head.  The  side  line  is  white, 
broad,  and  straight,  till  it  reaches  opposite  the  vent,  when 
it  bends  towards  the  tail.  The  jaws  are  of  an  equal  length, 
and  at  the  end  of  the  lower,  is  a  small  beard;  the  teeth 
are  disposed  in  the  palate,  as  well  as  in  the  jaws.  Leewen- 


94 


hoek  counted  9,384,000  eggs  in  a  Cod-fish  of  a  middling 
size;  a  number  that  will  baffle  all  the  efforts  of  man  to 
exterminate.  In  our  seas  they  begin  to  spawn  in  January, 
and  deposite  their  eggs  in  rough  ground,  among  rocks. 
Some  continue  in  roe  till  the  beginning  of  April. 

The  Cod  is  only  fbund  in  the  northern  parts  of  the 
world;  it  is  an  ocean  fish,  and  never  met  with  in  the  Me¬ 
diterranean  sea.  The  great  rendezvous  of  the  Cod-fish  is 
on  the  banks  of  Newfoundland,  and  the  other  sand  banks 
that  lie  off  the  coasts  of  Cape  Breton,  Nova  Scotia,  and 
New  England.  They  prefer  those  situations,  by  reason  of 
the  quantity  of  worms  produced  in  these  sandy  bottoms, 
which  tempt  them  to  resort  there  for  food.  But  another 
cause  of  the  particular  attachment  the  fish  have  to  these 
spots,  is  their  vicinity  to  the  polar  seas,  where  they  return 
to  spawn :  there  they  deposite  their  roes  in  full  security,, 
but  want  of  food  forces  them,  as  soon  as  the  first  more 
southern  seas  are  open,  to  repair  thither  for  subsistence. 
Some  considerable  quantity  of  Cod-fish  is  taken  at  Green¬ 
land;  a  few  also  to  the  north  of  Iceland,  but  to  the  south 
and  west  they  abound.  They  are  also  found  to  swarm  on 
the  coasts  of  Norway,  in  the  Baltic,  and  off  the  Orkney 
and  Western  Isles;  after  which  their  numbers  decrease,  in 
proportion  as  they  advance  towards  the  south,  when  they 
seem  quite  to  cease  before  they  reach  the  mouth  of  the 
Straits  of  Gibraltar. 

Before  the  discovery  of  Newfoundland,  the  greater 
fisheries  of  Cod  were  on  the  seas  of  Iceland,  and  off*  our 
Western  Isles,  which  were  the  grand  resort  of  ships  from 
all  the  commercial  nations;  but  it  seems  that  the  greatest 
plenty  was  met  with  near  Iceland.  The  English  resorted 
thither  before  the  year  1415:  for  we  find  that  Henry  V. 
was  disposed  to  give  satisfaction  to  the  king  of  Denmark, 
for  certain  irregularities  committed  by  his  subjects  on 
those  seas.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.  the  English  were 
excluded  from  the  fishery,  by  treaty.  In  later  times,  we 
find  Queen  Elizabeth  condescending  to  ask  permission  to 
fish  in  those  seas,  from  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark.  In  the 
reign  of  her  successor  however,  we  find  no  fewer  than  one 
hundred  and  fifty  English  ships  employed  in  the  Iceland 
fishery;  which  indulgence  might  arise  from  the  marriage 
of  James,  with  a  Princess  of  Denmark. 


95 


Newfoundland  was  discovered  in  1497,  by  John  Cabot, 
a  Venetian-,  but  it  was  not  till  1536,  that  the  English  dis¬ 
covered  the  great  quantity  of  Cod,  that  might  be  caught 
on  the  coasts  of  this  island  ;  and  the  spring  following  some 
small  vessels  were  fitted  out,  which  came  home  with  full 
sargoes.  This  fishery  then  gradually  increased,  so  that 
in  1615  we  find  two  hundred  and  fifty  English  vessels 
employed  in  the  Cod  fishery  on  these  coasts,  the  lading  of 
which  amounted  to  15,000  tons.  All  these  vessels  had 
sailed  from  Europe,  and  it  was  several  years  after  only, 
that  fixed  habitations  were  formed  in  Newfoundland. 
The  Spanish,  French,  and  Bretons,  formerly  had  much 
the  advantage  of  the  English,  in  all  fisheries*  as  appears  by 
the  state  of  that  in  the  seas  of  Newfoundland  in  the  year 
1578. 

Spaniards,  120  to  130  ships,  being  5  to 
Portuguese  50 

French  and  Bretons  150 
English  from  30  to  50 

The  French  pretend  to  have  frequented  the  coasts  of 
Newfoundland  since  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  cen¬ 
tury.  This  period  may  be  too  remote,  but  it  is  certain, 
that  they  frequented  them  before  the  year  1634.  All 
other  nations  besides  the  English  and  French  are  now  ex¬ 
cluded  from  this  trade.  The  latter  formerly  shared  the 
dominion  of  Newfoundland  with  the  English,  but  by  the 
peace  of  Utrecht,  the  property  of  this  island  was  confirmed 
to  Great  Britain,  and  the  French  only  preserved  the  right 
of  fishing  in  certain  latitudes.  The  latter  however,  by  the 
advantage  of  Cape  Breton,  used  to  carry  on  such  a  bene¬ 
ficial  fishery,  as  employed  at  least  1,000  sails  from  200  to 
400  tons  burthen,  and  20,000  seamen;  the  produce  of 
their  labour  being  so  great,  that  in  the  year  1730,  there 
was  a  computation  made,  of  220,000  quintals  of  Cod-fish 
at  Marseilles  only,  for  a  market;  and  it  has  been  affirmed, 
that  one  year  with  another,  they  cured  above  five  millions 
of  quintals. 

All  this  immense  fishery  is  carried  on  by  the  hook  and 
line  only,  yet  some  of  the  more  experienced  fishers  will 
take  350  to  400  cods  a  day.  We  have  been  informed, 
that  they  fish  from  the  depth  of  sixteen  to  sixty  fathoms, 
according  to  the  inequality  of  the  bank,  which  is  repre- 


6000  tons. 
3000  ditto. 
7000  ditto. 


9*5 


sented  as  a  vast  mountain,  under  water,  above  £100  miles 
long,  and  near  300  broad.  Near  15,000  British  seamen 
are  employed  in  this  fishery,  and  it  affords  subsistence  to 
a  much  more  numerous  body  of  people  at  home. 

The  best  season  for  the  Cod-fishery  is  from  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  February  to  the  end  of  April;  the  fish,  which  in 
winter  retire  to  the  deepest  water,  coming  then  on  the 
banks,  and  fattening  extremely.  What  is  caught  from 
March  to  June  keeps  well;  but  those  taken  in  July,  Au¬ 
gust,  and  September,  when  it  is  warm  on  the  banks,  are 
apt  to  spoil  soon.  About  July  therefore,  the  vessels  make 
the  best  of  their  way  to  the  Carribbee  islands,  or  the  Ro¬ 
man  Catholic  states  in  Europe,  every  one  using  his  efforts 
to  be  of  the  first  at  market. 

This  branch  of  trade  is  carried  on  in  two  different  ways; 
that  which  is  called  the  wandering  fishery,  belongs  to 
vessels  which  sail  every  year  from  Europe  to  Newfound¬ 
land:  stationary  fishery  is  that  carried  on  by  Europeans 
who  have  settlements  on  these  coasts,  and  is  infinitely 
more  profitable  than  the  wandering  fishery. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  salt  Cod,  the  one  called  green 
or  white,  and  the  other  dried  or  cured;  though  it  is  all 
the  same  fish,  only  differently  prepared.  The  most  es¬ 
sential  thing  in  the  green  Cod-fishery,  is  to  have  three 
persons,  who  perfectly  understand  to  open  the  fish,  to  cut 
off  the  heads,  and  to  salt  them.  These  operations  are  per¬ 
formed  on  board;  the  head  being  cut  off,  the  belly  opened, 
and  the  guts  taken  out,  the  salter  ranges  the  fish  in  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel,  head  to  tail,  and  having  thus  made 
a  layer  thereof,  a  fathom  or  two  square,  covers  it  with 
salt;  over  this  he  lays  another  layer,  which  he  covers  as 
before;  taking  care  never  to  mix  the  fish  of  different  days 
together.  When  the  Cod  has  lain  thus,  to  drain  three  or 
four  days,  they  are  moved  into  another  part  of  the  vessel, 
and  salted  afresh:  after  which  they  are  no  more  touched. 
Sometimes  they  are  put  in  barrels  for  the  conveniency  of 
carriage.  Green  Cod  is  chiefly  caught  in  the  Bay  of  Ca¬ 
nada,  on  the  great  bank  of  Newfoundland,  on  the  Isle  of 
St.  Peter,  &c.  In  the  fishing  for  dry  Cod,  such  vessels  are 
generally  chosen,  as  have  large  holds,  because  this  sort  of 
fish  incumbers  more<han  it  burthens.  As  fast  as  the  fish 
is  taken,  it  is  sent  on  shore,  opened  and  salted  there. 
When  they  have  taken  salt,  they  are  washed,  and  to  drain 


$7 


them  again,  laid  in  piles  on  a  scaffold,  and  then  on  hur¬ 
dles,  turning  them  four  times  every  twenty-four  hours. 
When  they  begin  to  dry,  they  are  laid  in  heaps,  to  retain 
their  warmth.  At  last  they  salt  them  over  again,  and  lay 
them  in  huge  piles,  in  which  manner  they  remain,  till  they 
are  carried  on  board,  where  they  are  laid  on  branches  of 
trees,  disposed  for  that  purpose  in  the  bottom  of  the  ves¬ 
sel,  with  mats  all  round,  to  prevent  their  contracting  any 
moisture.  The  principal  fishery  for  dried  Led,  is  from 
Cape  Rose  to  the  Bay  des  Experts,  along  the  coast  of 
Placentia.  These,  though  of  the  same  kind  with  the  green 
Cod,  are  much  smaller,  and  therefore  fitter  to  keep;  as 
the  salt  penetrates  more  easily  into  them.  This  fishery, 
though  scarce  half  so  much  salt  is  spent,  comes  more  ex-  / 
pensive  than  the  other,  as  taking  up  more  time,  and  em¬ 
ploying  more  hands. 

It  is  a  well  attested  phenomenon,  that  the  Codfisherv 
is  scarcely  begun,  before  the  sea  becomes  oily,  grows  calm, 
and  the  barks  are  seen  floating  upon  the  water,  as  upon  a 
polished  mirror.  The  same  effeCt  is  produced  by  the  oil 
which  runs  from  a  whale,  when  it  is  cut  to  pieces.  Dr. 
Franklin,  who  made  a  series  of  experiments  hereon,  has 
ascertained,  that  a  few  drops  of  oil,  the  whole  of  which 
united  together,  would  scarcely  have  filled  a  spoon,  quieted 
the  waves  at  more  than  a  hundred  toises  distance,  with  a 
celerity  of  expansion,  as  marvellous  a3  its  division.  There 
are  four  kinds  of  commodities  drawn  from  Cod,  viz.  the 
tripes,  the  tongues,  the  roes,  and  the  oil  extra<fied  from  the 
liver.  The  tripes,  tongues,  and  roes,  are  salted  at  the 
fishery,  together  with  the  fish,  and  made  up  in  barrels. 
The  oil  is  used  in  dressing  leather. 

The  Newfoundland  Cod-fish  is  more  delicate,  though 
not  so  white,  as  that  found  in  the  northern  seas  of  Eu¬ 
rope.  The  Greenland  fish  is  particularly  small  and  ema¬ 
ciated. 

The  Scotch  catch  a  small  kind  of  Cod  on  the  coast  of 
Buchan,  which  is  highly  prized,  though  very  much  like 
ling.  They  salt  it,  and  dry  it  in  the  sun  upon  rocks,  and 
sometimes  in  the  chimney;  but  the  greatest  part  of  it  is 
spent  at  home.  Cods  are  also  taken,  in  large  quantities, 
along  the  British  and  Irish  coasts;  and  they  are  caught  in 
abundance  on  the  Dogger’s  bank  off  Holland,  from  whence 
most  of  the  fish  come,  that  supply  the  market  at  Billings, 
gate  with  fresh  Cod. 

N 


98 


COFFEE. 


I) A.  Kaffe, 

SW.  Kffe. 

POL.  Kawa. 

R.  Kofi, 

L.  Coffeci,  Caffea. 


P.  Caffe, 

There  is  but  one  species  of  the  Coffee  Tree,  supposed  to 
be  a  native  of  Upper  Ethiopia,  where  it  has  been  known 
time  immemorial,  and  is  still  cultivated  with  success.  It 
is  larger,  rather  longer,  not  so  green,  and  almost  as  fra¬ 
grant,  as  that  coming  from  Arabia,  where  it  was  first  ga¬ 
thered,  towards  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century.  The 
Arabians  say,  that  it  is  a  native  of  Abyssinia;  and  several 
travellers  affirm,  that  they  have  seen  it  in  great  plenty  in 
that  country,  where  it  produces  berries  not  inferior  in 
goodness  to  the  Coffee  of  Yemen.  What  renders  this  re¬ 
lation  the  more  probable  is,  that  the  fruit  of  the  wild  cof¬ 
fee  tree  is  in  Arabia  so  bad,  as  to  be  unfit  for  use. 

The  Coffee  tree,  if  left  to  itself,  would  rise  to  the  height 
of  sixteen  or  eighteen  feet,  but  is  generally  stinted  to  five, 
for  the  conveniency  of  gathering  the  fruit.  The  main 
stem  grows  upright,  and  is  covered  with  a  light  brown 
bark;  the  branches  are  produced  horizontally  and  oppo¬ 
site,  crossing  each  other  at  every  joint;  so  that  every  side 
of  the  tree  is  usually  garnished  with  them,  and  they  form 
a  sort  of  pyramid.  The  leaves  also  stand  opposite,  and 
when  fully  grown,  are  about  four  or  five  inches  long,  and 
two  broad  in  the  middle.  The  flowers  are  produced  in 
clusters  at  the  root  of  the  leaves,  being  tubulous  and 
spreading  open  at  the  top;  they  are  of  a  pure  white,  and 
have  a  grateful  odour.  The  fruit,  which  is  the  only  useful 
part,  resembles  a  cherry.  It  ripens  from  August  to  Odto- 
ber,  darkens  in  November,  and  is  fit  to  gather  in  Decem¬ 
ber;  but  it  ought  never  to  be  gathered,  until  the  pulp  is 
exhaled,  and  the  coat  suffered  to  become  thoroughly  dry 
and  shrivelled;  so  that  it  appears  ready  to  drop  off,  and 
a&uallv  falls  off  upon  a  slight  touch.  The  best  flavoured 
Coffee  is  experienced  to  be  colle&ed  from  under  the  trees, 
where  it  has  recently  fallen,  quite  dry,  black,  and  shri- 


99 


veiled.  After  being  completely  dried,  it  is  taken  to  the 
mill,  where  it  is  stripped  of  its  first  skin,  and  divided  into 
two  parts,  being  flat  on  one  side,  and  convex  on  the 
other.  From  this  machine  it  falls  into  a  brass  sieve,  where 
the  skin  drops  between  the  wires,  after  which  it  is  put 
into  another  machine,  called  the  peeling  mill,  which  takes 
off  the  parchment  or  the  thin  skin,  that  detaches  itself 
from  the  berry  in  proportion  as  it  dries.  The  parchment 
being  removed,  it  is  put  into  the  winnowing  mill,  which 
clears  the  coffee  of  all  the  pellicles  that  are  mixed  with  it. 
It  is  afterwards  put  upon  a  table,  where  the  broken  ber¬ 
ries  and  any  filth  that  may  remain,  are  picked  out  by  ne¬ 
groes,  upon  which  it  is  fit  for  sale. 

The  Coffee  Tree  particularly  delights  in  hills  and  moun¬ 
tains,  where  its  root  is  almost  always  dry,  and  its  head  fre¬ 
quently  watered  with  gentle  showers.  In  Arabia,  the  inha¬ 
bitants  of  the  highlands,  plant  other  trees  among  their  cof¬ 
fee  plants,  in  order  to  shade  them;  and  in  the  time  of  the 
intense  heats,  water  them.  In  the  West  India  islands,  the 
soil  and  climate  are  so  very  different  from  that  of  Arabia, 
that  the  spot  for  the  Coffee  plantations  cannot  be  chosen 
too  dry,  nor  is  the  heat  too  great.  This  tree  begins  to 
yield  fruit  about  the  third  year,  but  is  not  in  full  bearing 
till  the  fifth.  In  a  gravelly  ground  it  mo?t  delights,  and 
its  roots,  which  seldom  fail  to  strike  between  stones,  ob¬ 
tain  nourishment,  and  keep  the  tree  alive  and  fruitful  for 
thirty  years.  It  flourishes  only  in  those  climates  where 
the  winters  are  exceedingly  mild;  and  then  its  blossoms 
appear  in  the  months  of  December,  January,  and  Febru¬ 
ary;  and  it  bears  in  October  or  November. 

The  Coffee  Shrub  is  principally  cultivated  in  Arabia ; 
the  isles  of  Java  and  Bourbon;  most  of  the  West  India 
islands;  and  in  the  Dutch  settlements  of  Surinam,  Ber- 
bice,  Demerara,  & c.  on  the  continent  of  South  America. 

The  Coffee  of  the  East  is  more  esteemed  than  that 
coming  from  the  West  Indies  and  America.  Among  the 
former,  the  Arabian  or  Mocha  Coffee,  stands  first,  then 
comes  the  Java,  Cheribon,  &c.  and  last  the  Bourbon  cof¬ 
fee.  Among  the  West  Indian  and  American  growth,  that 
of  the  French  colonies  is  preferred  to  the  British;  and  the 
Dutch  is  the  most  inferior  of  any.  Of  the  French  coffee 
that  of  Martinico  deserves  the  preference.  Good  West- 
India  coffee  should  be  of  a  greenish  colour,  fresh,  void  of 


100 


mouldy  and  other  unpleasant  smells,  and  in  small  berries, 
neither  mixed  with  black  nor  broken.  East-India  coffee 
is  of  a  pale,  and  partly  of  a  deep  yellow  colour,  the  Mo¬ 
cha  cofree  having  small  beans;  and  the  Java  in  particular 
being  of  a  large,  lightish  yellow  berry. 

The  quality  of  the  British  coffee  is  greatly  deteriorated, 
by  sufficient  care  not  being  taken  to  keep  it  distant  from 
sugar,  rum,  &c.  as  well  in  the  West-Indies,  as  on  board 
the  ships  which  bring  it  to  Europe.  The  berries,  there¬ 
fore,  should  never  be  laid  to  dry  in  houses,  where  sugars 
are  curing,  or  rum,  is  kept;  nor  sent  to  Europe  in  ships 
freighted  with  rum,  sugar,  pimento,  ginger,  salt-fish,  &c. 
as  they  are  very  subject  to  imbibe  the  flavour  of  these 
commodities.  The  French,  and  most  other  foreigners, 
exceed  us  vastly  in  this  respect  as  well  as  in  their  method 
of  cultivating  and  curing  coffee;  and  the  greater  price 
which  the  coffee  of  their  produce  gains,  is  owing,  in  a 
great  degree,  to  their  superior  care  and  management. 

The  growing  in  too  moist  a  soil,  is  another  cause,  which, 
though  it  always  increases  the  size  of  fruit  and  vegetables, 
greatly  depreciates  the  quality  of  coffee  in  general,  and  is 
particularly  the  reason  of  the  inferiority  of  the  growth  of 
Jamajca:  the  soil  of  which  island  is  too  luxuriant,  rich, 
and  wet  for  this  production,  particularly  the  north  side 
and  midland  parts.  The  berries  there  are  large,  and  have 
a  full  pulp,  which  requires  a  long  time  to  dry,  and  the 
weather  and  atmosphere  are  too  moist  for  the  purpose  ;.so 
that  the  coffee  brought  from  thence,  is  frequently  covered 
with  a  degree  of  mouldiness,  and  contracts  a  musty,  disa¬ 
greeable  smell  and  taste.  The  drier  the  soil,  and  warmer 
the  situation  is,  the  better  will  be  the  berries;  they  will  be 
smaller,  have  less  pulp,  and  a  superior  flavour.  It  is  true, 
that  the  trees  planted  in  rich  soils,  yield  commonly  from 
twelve  to  sixteen  ounces  of  coffee  per  plant,  and  sometimes 
as  much  as  two  pounds;  and  that,  in  dry  soils,  they  scarcely 
furnish  more  than  from  six  to  eight  ounces,  which  makes 
an  immediate  difference  of  one  half  in  the  weight.  Now 
in  our  markets,  the  greatest  difference  in  the  price,  be¬ 
tween  small  best  grown  coffee,  and  that  which  is  larger 
and  of  the  worse  kind,  is  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  per 
cent,  the  planters,  therefore  find  it  their  advantage,  to 
plant  their  trees  in  the  richest  soil. 


101 


The  origin  of  the  drink  made  of  Coffee,  is  not  well 
known.  Some  ascribe  it  to  the  Persians,  from  whom  the 
use  was  learned  about  the  fifteenth  century,  by  Gemaled- 
din,  Mufti  of  Aden,  a  city  near  the  mouth  of  the  Red 
sea,  who  first  recommended  it  to  his  Dervises,  with  whom 
he  spent  the  night  in  prayers.  Their  example  brought 
coffee  into  vogue  at  Aden.  Hence  it  passed  to  Mecca, 
where  first  the  devotees,  and  then  the  rest  of  the  people 
took  it.  From  Arabia  Felix  it  passed  to  Cairo.  In  1511, 
Kahie  Beg  prohibited  it,  from  a  persuasion  that  it  inebri¬ 
ated  and  inclined  to  things  forbidden.  But  Sultan  Cau- 
sou  immediately  after  took  off  the  prohibition,  and  coffee 
advanced  from  Egypt  to  Syria  and  Constantinople.  The 
Dervises  declaimed  against  it  from  the  Alcoran,  which  de¬ 
clares,  that  coal  is  not  of  the  number  of  things  created  by 
God  for  food.  Accordingly,  the  Mufti  ordered  the  coffee 
houses  to  be  shut;  but  his  successor  declaring  coffee  not  to 
be  coal,  they  were  again  opened.  During  the  war  in  Can- 
dia,  the  assemblies  of  newsmongers  making  too  free  with 
state  affairs,  the  Grand  Visir  Cuproli  suppressed  the  coffee 
houses  at  Constantinople;  which  suppression,  though  still 
on  foot  does  not  prevent  the  public  use  of  the  liquor  there. 
Thevenot,  the  traveller,  was  the  first  who  brought  it  into 
France;  and  a  Greek  servant,  named  Pasqua,  brought  to 
England  in  1652,  by  Daniel  Edwards,  a  Turkey  merchant, 
to  make  his  coffee,  first  set  up  the  profession  of  coffee- 
man,  and  introduced  the  drink  into  this  island. 

The  Arabian  coffee  is  produced  in  the  territory  of  Be- 
telfagni,  in  a  district  of  fifty  leagues  long,  and  fifteen  or 
twenty  broad.  The  fruit  is  not  every  where  in  equal  per¬ 
fection.  That  which  grows  upon  the  higher  grounds,  is 
smaller,  greener,  weighs  heavier,  and  is  generally  pre¬ 
ferred. 

It  is  computed  that  Arabia  contains  twelve  milions  of 
inhabitants,  among  the  greatest  number  of  whom  coffee  is 
a  highly  favourite  liquor.  None  but  the  rich  citizens  have 
the  pleasure  of  tasting  the  berry  itself.  The  common 
people  are  obliged  to  content  themselves  with  the  shell 
and  the  husk  of  this  valuable  production.  These  remains 
so  much  despised,  make  a  liquor  of  a  pretty  clear  colour, 
which  has  the  taste  of  coffee,  without  its  bitterness  and 
strength.  These  articles  may  be  had  at  a  low  price  at  Be- 
telfagui,  which  is  the  general  market  for  them.  Here 


102 


likewise  is  sold,  all  the  coffee,  which  comes  out  of  the 
country  by  land.  The  rest  is  carried  to  Mocha,  or  to  Jod- 
da.  The  Egyptians  fetch  it  from  the  latter  place,  and  all 
other  nations  from  the  former.  The  quantity  of  coffee 
exported  from  Arabia,  may  be  estimated  from  twelve  to 
thirteen  millions  weight.  The  European  companies  take 
off  a  million  and  a  half ;  the  Persians  three  and  a  half;  the 
fleet  from  Suez  six  and  a  half  millions;  Indostan,  the  Mal¬ 
dives,  and  the  Arabian  colonies  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  fifty 
thousand  pounds;  and  the  land  caravans  a  million.  The 
superiority  of  the  Asiatic  coffee,  must  arise  chiefly  from 
its  being  cultivated  in  soils,  best  appropriated  to  it;  from 
its  not  being  packed  on  board  ship,  with  goods  whose 
steams  might  impregnate  and  vitiate  its  flavour;  from  the 
length  of  its  voyage  to  the  European  markets,  and  the 
greater  age  it  acquires  by  this  means,  before  it  comes  into 
the  consumer’s  hands.  Perhaps,  one  part  of  the  excellence 
of  the  Mocha  coffee  arises  from  this  circumstance.  The 
East  India  Company  send  a  ship  to  Mocha  once  in  two 
years;  it  is  most  probable,  a  part  of  the  loading  has  been 
kept  in  that  hot  country,  above  a  year;  it  is  six  months  be¬ 
fore  it  arrives  in  England;  it  may  be  six  or  twelve  months 
more,  before  it  comes  into  the  consumer’s  hands.  Thus 
between  two  and  three  years  must  intervene  between  its 
growth  and  consumption. 

For  coffee-berries,  some  substitute  peas,  beans,  rye,  bar¬ 
ley,  oats,  carrots,  &c.  which  when  roasted,  yield  an  oily 
matter,  resembling  coffee  in  flavour,  but  less  agreeable. 


COLE-SEED;  see  Rape-seed. 
COLOCYNTH,  coloquintida,  bitter  gourds. 


F  Co7oquintes. 

G.  Ko'oquinten. 

D.  ButerappeletiyQuintappe- 
len 

I.  Coloquintida. 

S.  ColoquintidaSy  ’Tit  eras, 

Calabacillas. 


P.  Coloquintidasy  Cabacin- 
kas . 

DA.  Coloquinter. 

S\V.  Coloquinter . 

POL.  Kolok'-wintyda. 

R.  Koloxintii. 

L.  Colocyntidum  poma . 


Colocynth  is  the  dried  medullary  part  of  a  wild  species 
of  gourd  or  cucumber,  the  cucumis  colocynthis;  brought 
from  Aleppo,  and  other  parts  of  the  East.  . 


103 


It  is  a  very  strong  irritating  cathartic,  commended  also 
as  an  efficacious  purgative  and  an  alterative  in  chronical 
disorders. 


COLOPHONY. 


F.  Colo  phone. 

G.  Geigenharz , 
D.  V toolbars. 
I.  Colofonio. 

S.  Colcfcnia. 
P.  Colopbonia. 


DA.  Fioiinharpix ,  Gclcpho- 
nium. 

SW.  Fiolkadciy  Harts. 

P  O  L .  KaloJ'onia. 

R.  Kan  fol. 

L.  Colopbonium. 


Colophony  is  black  rosin  or  turpentine,  boiled  in  water, 
and  afterwards  dried;  or  which  is  still  better,  the  caput 
mortuum  remaining  after  the  distillation  of  the  etherial 
oil,  being  further  urged  by  a  more  intense  and  long  con¬ 
tinued  fire.  To  be  good,  it  must  be  shining,  and  odorife¬ 
rous;  and  when  thrown  on  the  fire,  should  render  asmoke 
like  that  of  frankincense. 

It  receives  its  name,  from  Colophon,  a  city  of  Ionia,  be¬ 
cause  the  best  was  formerly  brought  from  thence.  This 
substance  is  found  to  warm,  dry,  soften,  and  agglutinate; 
it  usually  enters  the  composition  of  plasters  and  unguents; 
though  it  is  also  used  by  musicians,  to  rub  the  hairs  of  the 
.  bow  for  their  violins. 


4 


COLUMBO  ROOT. 


F.  Racine  de  Colombo . 

G.  Co' umbo  cwurzel. 
D.  Columho  njoortel. 

1.  Radice  di  Columho. 
S.  Raiz  de  Columho . 


P.  Raiz  de  Columho.. 

DA.  Columborcd. 

SW.  Columhorot . 

L.  Columho  Columho;  radix. 


This  is  an  article  newly  introduced  in  medicine,  the  na¬ 
tural  history  of  which  is  not  yet  well  known.  It  derives 
its  name  from  Columbo,  a  town  in  Ceylon,  which  supplies 
all  India  with  it.  The  inhabitants  of  these  countries  have 
for  a  long  time  used  it,  in  disorders  of  the  stomach  and 
bowels.  They  carry  it  about  with  them,  and  take  it  sliced 
and  scraped  in  Madeira  wine. 


104 


This  root  comes  to  us  in  circular  pieces,  which  are  from 
half  an  inch  or  an  inch,  to  three  inches  in  diameter;  and 
divided  into  frusta,  which  measure  from  two  inches  to  one 
quarter  of  an  inch.  The  sides  are  covered  with  a  thick 
corrugated  bark,  of  a  dark  brown  hue  on  its  external  sur¬ 
face,  but  internally  of  a  light  yellow  colour.  On  separa¬ 
ting  the  surfaces  of  the  transverse  sections,  the  root  is  ob¬ 
served  to  consist  of  three  laminx;  the  cortical,  the  lig¬ 
neous,  and  the  medullary.  All  the  thicker  pieces  have 
holes  drilled  through  them,  for  the  conveniency  of  drying. 
Columbo  root  has  an  aromatic  smell,  but  is  disagreeably 
bitter,  and  slightly  pungent  to  the  taste,  somewhat  resem¬ 
bling  mustard  seed,  when  it  has  lost  by  long  keeping,  part 
of  its  essential  oil.  Yet,  though  ungrateful  to  the  taste, 
when  received  into  the  stomach,  it  appears  to  be  corrobo¬ 
rant,  antiseptic,  sedative,  and  powerfully  antiemetic. 


F.  Cuivre. 

G .  Kupfer . 

D.  Coper. 

I.  Rame. 

S.  Ccbre. 
P.  Cclre . 


COPPER. 

DA.  Kobber. 

SW.  Koppar. 

POL.  iViiedx. 

R  Mje<C  Krasnoi  mjed. 
L.  Cuprum . 


This  is  one  of  those  metals,  which  from  their  destruc- 
tibility  by  fire,  and  contracting  rust  in  the  air,  are  called 
imperfect.;  of  these  however,  it  is  one  of  the  least  imper¬ 
fect  and  destructible.  Its  colour  when  clean,  is  very 
brilliant;  but  it  is  extremely  liable  to  tarnish,  and  the 
goodness  is  judged  by  its  being  of  a  bright  red.  It  has  a 
disagreeable  smell,  very  perceptible  on  friction,  or  on 
being  heated.  Its  taste  is  styptic  and  nauseous,  but  less 
perceptible  than  that  of  iron.  Its  tenacity,  ductility,  and 
hardness,  are  very  considerable  and  its  elasticity  superior 
to  any  other  metal  except  steel. 

Copper  is  found  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  chiefly  in 
the  following  state.  First,  native  Copper;  then,  mine¬ 
ralized  by  fixed  air;  coupreous  stones;  mineralized  by 
sulphur;  dissolved  by  vitriolic  acid;  and  in  various  other 
forms. 


105 


Native  Copper,  having  the  red  colour,  the  malleability, 
and  all  the  other  properties  of  the  metal,  is  found  in  many 
places  of  ^Europe  ;  particularly  at  St.  Bell  near  Lyons,  at 
Norberg  in  Sweden,  and  Newfol  in  Hungary ;  also  in  se¬ 
veral  parts  of  America.  In  very  considerable  quantities 
it  is  found  at  Cape  Lizard,  and  at  Huel  Virgin,  in  the 
county  of  Cornwall.  Some  lumps  of  native  Copper  have 
been  found  in  the  latter  spot,  that  weighed  from  twenty 
to  thirty  pounds;  and  in  the  month  of  March,  1785,  there 
were  no  less  than  twenty-eight  millions  of  pounds  of  rich 
Copper  ore  extracted  from  this  mine. 

Among  the  ores  of  Copper  mineralized  by  fixed  air,  be¬ 
long  Copper  ochre,  mountain  green,  mountain  blue,  ma¬ 
lachite,  and  azure  of  Copper.  Mountain  green  is  generally 
found  in  a  loose  and  friable  state,  often  mixed  with  calca¬ 
reous  earth,  iron,  and  some  arsenic.  One  hundred  parts 
of  the  purest  sort,  contain  seventy-two  of  copper,  twenty- 
two  of  aerial  acid,  and  six  of  water.  The  mountain,  blue , 
is  of  a  deep  blue  colour,  sometimes  formed  in  rhomboidal 
prismatic  crystals  of  a  fine  blue,  in  which  case  it  is  called 
azure  of  Copper.  The  malachite  is  sufficiently  hard  to  take 
a  fine  polish,  and  is  therefore  formed  into  toys  of  different 
kinds;  but  as  it  is  frequently  porous  and  full  of  unequal 
cavities,  the  solid  pieces  of  a  certain  size  are  reckoned  va¬ 
luable.  The  malachite  looks  like  green  jasper,  but  is  less 
hard,  and  does  not  strike  fire  with  steel. 

Among  the  cupreous  stones  deserve  to  be  enumerated; 
the  turquoise ,  improperly  called  a  stone,  being  the  tooth  of 
an  animal,  penetrated  by  the  blue  calx  of  Copper,  of  a 
deeper  or  lighter  blue,  and  susceptible  of  a  fine  polish;  also 
the  lapis  Armenus ,  which  has  calcareous  earth  or  gypsum 
for  its  basis:  it  is  used  in  painting,  when  ground  to  a  fine 
powder,  under  the  name  of  Bice. 

Copper  mineralized  by  sulphur,  is  the  richest  of  all  the 
Copper  ores,  affording,  from  eighty  to  ninety  per  cent,  of 
Copper,  ten  or  twelve  of  sulphur,  and  a  small  proportion 
of  iron. 

Copper  dissolved  by  the  vitriolic  acid.  At  Herngrundt 
near  Newsol  in  Upper  Hungary,  there  are  two  springs,  call¬ 
ed  the  Old  and  New  Ziment,  so  richly  impregnated  with 


O 


106 


Copper  dissolved  by  the  vitriolic  acid;  that  iron  thown  into 
them  is  dissolved  by  the  latter,  and  the  Copper  precipitated 
in  its  metallic  form,  in  the  place  of  the  iron.  Some  pits 
made  purposely  for  this  operation,  are  filled  with  the  wa¬ 
ter  of  the  springs,and  old  iron  is  thrown  in,  which  in  twelve 
or  twenty  days  is  taken  out,  and  the  Copper  scraped  off. 
The  metal  thus  procured,  differs  little  from  native  Cop¬ 
per.  One  hundred  tons  of  iron  by  this  metjiod  yield 
eighty-four  to  ninety  tons  of  Copper.  By  the  like  process, 
such  quantities  of  Copper  have  of  late  years  been  ob¬ 
tained,  from  some  spring  issuing  from  the  celebrated 
Copper  mines  at  Asklow,  in  the  county  of  Wicklow,  in 
Ireland,  that  these  springs  are  now  of  as  much  consequence 
as  the  mines  themselves.  One  ton  of  iron  there,  produces 
sixteen  cwt.  of  fine  Copper,  selling  for  ten  pounds  sterling 
a  ton  more,  than  the  Copper  fluxed  from  the  ore. 

There  is  in  the  isle  of  Anglesey  a  mountain  called  Parys, 
which  abounds  in  Copper  ore.  This  is  one  of  the  rich¬ 
est  Copper  mines  in  the  world.  According  to  Pennant,  it 
is  certain,  that  the  Romans  were  the  first  undertakers  of 
these  mines.  But  they  were  not  properly  worked  till  the 
year  1 768,  when  they  discovered  at  the  depth  of  seven  feet 
from  the  surface,  the  solid  mineral,  which  proved  to  be 
that  vast  body,  which  has  since  been  worked  to  such  ad¬ 
vantage,  and  is  of  unknown  extent.  Its  thickness  has  been 
ascertained  in  some  places  to  be  twenty-four  yards.  The 
works  of  the  Parys  mountain  consist  of  xtwo  quarries,  the 
first  called  Monamine,  the  sole  property  of  Lord  Uxbridge ; 
the  other  called  Parys,  mine,  shared  between  Lord  Ux¬ 
bridge  and  the  Rev.  Mr.  Hughes.  The  Parys  mine  has 
furnished  from  five  to  ten  thousand  tons  of  Copper  per 
quarter,  exclusive  of  what  is  procured  from  the  springs  con¬ 
taining  Copper  dissolved  in  vitriolic  acid,  which  also  here 
is  the  richest  ore  the  mine  contains.  As  the  two  mines 
employ  nearly  equal  numbers  of  workmen,  they  probably 
afford  about  the  same  quantity  of  ore.  The  produce  of 
these  mines  is  exported  from  the  port  of  Amlcoch. 

Besides  these  there  are  other  considerable  Copper  mines 
in  Wales,  as  the  Llandidno  mines  near  Conway;  the  mines 
in  Llanwrst  vale,  in  North  Wales;  the  hill  of  Llyany- 
mvnech,  consisting  of  a-  range  of  from  twenty  to  thirty 


107 


shallow  pits;  the  mines  near  Pont  Aberglaslyn,  at  the  en¬ 
trance  by  the  South  into  Carnarvonshire;  and  the  mine 
on  Snowden,  near  the  village  of  Llanberris. 

The  Ecton  mine,  on  the  estate  of  the  Duke  of  Devon¬ 
shire,  in  Staffordshire,  produces  at  least  three  hundred, 
and  the  mines  in  Cornwall  no  Less  than  four  thousand 
tons  of  Copper  per  annum. 

Sweden  is  reckoned  the  richest  of  any  country  in  Copper 
mines;  but  the  Swedish  Copper  is  inferior  to  the  British. 
Copper  is  also  brought  from  Norway  and  Japan.  The 
Spaniards  are  plentifully  suplied  with  this  metal  from  New 
Spain,  the  island  of  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  and  the  kingdom  of 
Chili,  whence  it  comes  over  without  further  improvement 
than  that  of  the  first  fusion,  being  formed  by  a  mould  into 
round  cakes.  This  the  Spaniards  affirm  to  excel  the  Bar¬ 
bary  Copper,  and  insist  that  it  equals  that  of  Sweden  and 
Hungary. 

Copper  when  taken  in  the  human  body  acts  as  a  vio¬ 
lent  emetic,  and  has  been  generally  accounted  poisonous. 
In  order  to  prevent  the  pernicious  effects  of  this  metal,  the 
vessels  made  of  it,  are  generally  covered  with  tin  in  the 
inside.  Twenty-two  to  twenty-three  pounds  of  fine  tin, 
melted  together  with  one  hundredweight  of  Copper,  makes 
bell-metal;  with  a  smaller  proportion  of  tin,  it  forms  bronze. 
Copper  mixed  with  zinc,  produces  brass ,  princes  metal , 
pinchbeck  or  similor ,  Mankeim  gold,  and  other  compositions, 
according  to  the  proportion. 

COPPERAS,  GREEN  VITRIOL, 

P.  Caparrcza  cverde. 

DA.  GrUnt  kobberwand. 
SW.  G)  on  Victrivlt  Jern'vi- 
tricl. 

POL  Kopernxjas  z.zejaza. 

R.  Selenui  kuparos. 

L,  V itriolurn  mart  is. 

Copperas,  is  a  name  given  to  the  factitious  green  vitriol. 
The  usual  method  of  manufacturing  it  in  this  country  from 
pyrites,  is  as  follows.  Pyrites  are  found  in  large  quantity 
in  the  coal  mines  of  England,  where  most  of  the  Cop¬ 
peras  is  made.  They  are  sulphur  united  with  any  metal; 
very  heavy  and  hard  substances,  having  a  kind  of  brassy 


F.  Couperose  <verte . 

G.  Kupfernvasser ,  Eisenvi - 

triol. 

D.  Groene  'vitriool ,  Yzer<vi- 
triool. 

I.  Copparosa  <verde. 

S.  Vitriolo  de  Marte. 


108 


appearance,  and  hence  they  are  called  brasses  by  the  work¬ 
men,  A  very  large  quantity  of  these  is  collected,  and 
spread  out  upon  a  bed  of  stiff  clay,  to  the  depth  of  three 
feet.  After  being  some  time  exposed  to  the  air,  the  up¬ 
permost  ones  lose  their  metallic  appearance,  split,  and  fall 
to  powder.  The  heaps  are  then  turned  the  under  part 
uppermost,  so  as  to  expose  fresh  pyrites  to  the  air.  When 
they  are  all  reduced  to  powder,  which  generally  requires 
three  years;  the  liquor,  which  is  formed  by  the  rain  water 
running  from  such  a  large  mass,  becomes  very  acid,  and 
has  likewise  a  styptic  vitriolic  taste.  It  is  now  conveyed 
into  large  cisterns  lined  with  clay,  whence  it  is  pumped  into 
a  very  large  flat  vessel  made  of  lead.  This  vessel  which 
contains  about  fifteen  or  twenty  tons  of  liquor,  is  sup¬ 
ported  by  cast  iron  plates,  about  an  inch  thick,  between 
which  and  the  lead  a  bed  of  clay  is  interposed.  The  whole 
rests  upon  narrow  arches  of  brick,  under  which  the  fire  is 
placed.  Along  with  the  liquor,  about  half  a  ton  or  more 
of  old  iron  is  put  into  the  evaporating  vessel.  The  liquor, 
which  is  very  far  from  being  saturated  with  acid,  a£ts  up¬ 
on  the  iron,  and  by  repeated  filling  up  as  it  evaporates, 
dissolves  the  whole  quantity.  By  the  time  this  quantity  is 
dissolved,  a  pellicle  is  formed  on  the  surface.  The  fire 
is  then  put  out;  and  as  such  a  large  quantity  of  liquor  does 
not  admit  of  filtration,  it  is  left  to  settle  for  a  whole  day, 
and  then  is  let  off  by  a  cock,  placed  a  little  above  the  bot¬ 
tom  of  the  evaporating  vessel,  so  as  to  allow  the  impurities 
to  remain  behind.  It  is  conveyed  by  wooden  spouts  to  a 
large  leaden  cistern,  five  or  six  feet  deep,  sunk  in  the 
ground,  and  which  is  capable  of  containing  the  whole 
quantity  of  liquor.  Here  the  Copperas  crystallizes  on  the 
sides,  and  on  sticks  put  into  the  liquor.  The  crystalliza¬ 
tion  usually  takes  up  three  weeks.  The  liquor  is  then 
pumped  back  into  the  evaporating  vessel,  more  iron  and 
fresh  liquor  from  the  pyrites  are  added,  and  a  new  solution 
takes  place. 

There  is  Copperas  of  England,  Germany,  Cyprus,  Hun¬ 
gary,  and  Italy;  which  only  differ  from  each  other  in  co¬ 
lour,  richness  and  perfection,  being  all  the  same  mijaerll. 

White  Copperas  is  that  of  Germany;  which,  before 
whitening,  is  of  a  bluish  green,  clear  and  transparent. 


109 


Copperas  is  used  in  dying,  for  procuring  a  black  co¬ 
lour;  in  tanning  and  dressing  of  leather;  and  is  an  ingredi¬ 
ent  in  making  common  ink.  It  likewise  affords  an  oil,  and 
a  kind  of  Spanish  brown  for  painters;  and  is  used  in 
medicine,  as  a  corroborant. 


F.  Corail, 

G.  Kor alien. 
D.  Koraalen. 
1.  Corale. 

S.  Coral. 

P.  Coral. 


CORAL. 

DA.  Koraller.  , 

$W.  Koraller. 

POL.  Kor  al kit  Kor  alii. 
R .  Kcrallii . 

L.  Corallina. 


The  Corals  were  formerly  believed  to  be  vegetable  sub¬ 
stances,  hardened  by  the  air.  Those  parts  which  were 
supposed  to  be  the  flowers,  are  now  discovered  to  be  iiise&s 
inhabiting  the  Coral.  The  organs  of  the  animal  are  con¬ 
tained  in  the  tubes,  and  the  glandules  are  the  extremities 
of  its  feet;  the  milky  liquor  is  the  blood  and  juice.  The 
animal  inhabiting  the  Coral  is  of  the  polype  kind,  and  the 
Coral  has  the  same  relation  to  the  polypes  united  to  it,  as 
there  is  between  the  shell  of  a  snail  and  the  snail  itself. 

The  Coral  grows  in  the  caverns  of  the  sea,  exposed  to 
every  injury;  and  it  grows  sometimes  perpendicularly 
downwards,  sometimes  horizontally,  and  sometimes  up¬ 
wards.  The  colour  is  either  red,  white,  or  black;  the  lat¬ 
ter  is  the  rarest. 

The  principal  Coral  trade  is  fixed  at  Genoa,  Leghorn, 
Marseilles,  and  Messina.  The  Coral  fishery  is  carried 
on  in  the  Mediterranean,  on  the  shores  of  Provence,  from 
Cape  de  la  Couronne,  to  that  of  St.  Tropex,  about  the 
isles  of  Majorca  and  Minorca,  and  on  the  coast  of  Sicily; 
on  the  coasts  of  Africa,  particularly  in  the  Ethiopic  Ocean, 
about  Cape  Negro,  in  the  Persian  Gulph,  and  the  Red  Sea. 
The  immense  banks  of  Coral  bordering  and  almost  filling 
up  the  Arabic  Gulph,  rise  sometimes  ten  fathoms  above 
the  surface  of  the  sea;  and  being  soft  under  water,  and 
hence  easily  wrought,  they  are  preferred  to  all  other  stones 


110 


for  the  purpose  of  building.  Very  fine  branchy  Coral  is 
found  along  the  coast,  east  of  the  city  of  Taranto.  There 
was  sometime  back  such  abundance  of  Coral  near  these 
shores,  that  a  boat’s  crew  was  once  known  to  draw  up  in 
one  day  as  much  as  sold  for  five  hundred  ducats. 

The  manner  of  fishing  Coral  being  nearly  the  same  eve¬ 
ry  where,  it  will  suffice  to  mention  the  method  used  by 
the  company  at  Marseilles.  Seven  or  eight  men  go  in  a 
boat,  commanded  by  the  patron  or  proprietor;  and  when 
the  net  is  thrown  by  the  caster,  the  rest  work  the  boat, 
and  help  to  draw  the  net  in.  This  is  composed  of  two 
rafters  of  wood  tied  crosswise,  with  leads  fixed  to  them  : 
to  these  they  fasten  a  quantity  of  hemp,  twisted  loosely 
round,  and  intermingled  with  some  loose  netting.  In 
this  condition  the  machine  is  let  down  into  the  sea,  and 
when  the  Coral  is  pretty  strongly  embarrassed  in  the  hemp 
and  the  nets,  they  draw  it  out  with  a  rope,  which  they 
unwind  according  to  the  depth/  and  which  sometimes  re¬ 
quires  half  a  dozen  boats  to  draw.  If  this  rope  happens 
to  break,  the  fishermen  run  the  hazard  of  being  lost :  Be¬ 
fore  the  fishers  go  to  sea,  they  agree  for  the  price  of  the 
Coral,  and  the  produce  of  the  fishery  is  divided  on  their 
return,  into  thirteen  parts;  of  which  the  proprietor  has 
four,  the  caster  two,  and  the  other  six  men  one  each;  the 
thirteenth  belongs  to  the  company  for  payment  of  the 
boat  furnished  them. 


CORIANDER. 


F.  Coriandre . 

G.  Koriander. 

D.  Koriander . 

I.  Coriandro ,  Curiandolo. 
S.  Cilantro ,  Culantro. 

F.  Coentro ,  Coriandro . 


DA.  Koriander . 

SW.  Koriander. 

POL  Kory  under. 

R.  Koriander 
L.  Coryandrum  salivu  m. 


Coriander  is  arr  umbelliferous  plant,  producing  pale,  yel¬ 
lowish  or  brownish,  striated,  hemispherical  seeds,  which 
.  are  joined  by  the  flat  sides,  two  togther.  It  is  annual,  grow¬ 
ing  in  abundance  in  the  southern  parts  of  Europe. 

These  seeds  when  fresh,  have  a  very  unpleasant  flavor, 
which  however  by  drying  is  altered,  and  becomes  tolera- 


Ill 


bly  grateful.  Their  taste  in  this  dry  state,  is  moderately 
warm  and  slightly  pungent.  Besides  the  confections  made 
of  Coriander  seed,  it  is  sometimes  employed  in  medicine 
as  a  stomachic  and  carminative*,  it  is  also  used  by  brewers, 
both  in  England  and  Holland,  to  give  a  flavour  to  the 
strongest  beer. 


DA  .Kcrk. 

SW.  Korkira. 

POL.  Korek. 

R,  Korko'ivoe  derewo. 
L .  S uber. 


F.  Liege. 

G.  Kork. 
D.  Kork. 


I.  Sughero,  Suvero. 
S.  Core  bo. 


P.  Cortica . 

Cork  is  the  bark  of  a  species  of  oak,  called  quercus 
suber.  It  grows  thirty  or  forty  feet  high,  having  a  thick, 
rough,  fungous,  cleft  bark.  To  take  off  this  bark  they 
make  an  incision  from  the  top  to  the  botton  of  the  Cork 
tree,  and  at  each  extremity  another  round  perpendicular 
to  the  first.  The  old  bark  being  detached  for  use  the  tree 
still  lives,  and  in  six  or  seven  years,  the  succeeding  young 
bark  is  again  fit  for  use.  The  bark  when  stripped  from 
the  tree,  is  piled  up  in  a  pond  or  ditch,  and  loaded  with 
heavy  stones  to  flatten  it  *,  hence  it  it  taken  to  be  dried,  and 
when  sufficiently  dry,  put  in  bales  for  carriage.  The  Cork 
tree  is  not  injured  by  the  operation  of  pealing  off  the 
bark;  for  if  not  performed,  it  splits  and  peels  off  from  it¬ 
self,  being  pushed  up  by  another  bark  formed  under¬ 
neath. 

The  bark  of  Cork  is  of  some  use  in  medicine,  but  the 
chief  use  of  it  is  for  making  soles,  heels,  and  stoppers  for 
bottles,  & c.  The  Spaniards  burn  it,  to  make  that  kind  of 
light  black,  we  call  Spanish  black,  used  by  painters.  They 
also  line  stone  walls  with  Cork,  which  not  only  renders 
them  very  warm,  but  corrects  the  moisture  of  the  air. 
Cork  is  likewise  used  for  making  Cork  jackets  for  swim¬ 
ming. 

The  Cork  tree  grows  in  great  plenty  in  Spain  and  Por¬ 
tugal,  and  from  these  countries  we  receive  the  bark.  It 


112 


should  be  chosen  in  fine  boards,  all  of  a  piece,  of  a  mode¬ 
rate  thickness,  yellowish  without  and  within,  not  full  of 
knots,  and  even  when  cut. 


F.  BJe'ds ,  Grains. 

G  Getreide,  Korn . 

D  Graanen,  Korcn. 

I.  Grani ,  Biadi. 

$.  Granos. 

P.  Graos. 

Corn  is  a  general  name  for  several  grains  or  seeds,  used 
for  the  nutriment  of  man;  such  as  wheat,  buckwheat,  rye, 
barley,  oats,  millet,  maize,  lentils,  peas,  &c.  for  which 
see  under  the  respective  heads.  Europe  in  every  part  of 
it,  Egypt,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  coast  of  Barbary, 
and  some  other  cantons  of  Africa,  with  some  parts  of 
America  cultivated  by  the  Europeans,  are  the  places  which 
produce  Corn. 

Egypt  and  Sicily  were  formerly  the  most  fertile  of  all 
other  countries  in  Corn.  Poland,  France,  the  coast  of  the 
Black  Sea,  and  North  America,  now  with  their  superflui¬ 
ties  supply  a  good  part  of  Europe. 

The  best  method  of  preserving  Corn,  is  to  move  and  air 
it  frequently  for  the  first  six  months;  after  that  time  it  will 
require  less  labour,  if  kept  in  a  dry  place.  When  the  Corn 
has  been  preserved  from  all  impurities  for  the  space  of  two 
years,  and  has  exhaled  all  its  fires,  it  may  be  kept  for  fifty 
or  even  one  hundred  years,  by  lodging  it  in  pits,  cover¬ 
ed  with  strong  planks  closely  joined  together:  but  the  sa¬ 
fer  way  is  to  cover  the  heap  with  quicklime,  which  should 
be  dissolved  by  sprinkling  it  over  with  a  small  quantity  of 
water;  this  causes  the  grains  to  shoot,  to  the  depth  of  two 
or  three  fingers,  and  incloses  them  with  an  incrustation, 
though  which  neither  air  nor  insects  can  penetrate. 

It  has  been  computed  with  certainty,  that  the  balance 
paid  by  Britain  for  corn  imported,  after  deducting  the  value 
of  exportation,  stood  thus: 


CORN. 


DA,  Korn . 

|L  SW.  Sad,  Spanmal. 
POL.  Zboze. 

R.  Ghljeb. 

.  L.  Fr amentum . 


113 


In  1771, . £.105,200 

1772,  .  84,400 

1773,  - -  -  -  569,820 

1774,  -  1,022,230 

and  considerable^  more  in  1775. 

Much  larger  sums  than  the  above,  have  been  expend¬ 
ed  by  Great  Britain  during  the  last  war,  for  purchasing 
corn,  and  bounties  on  the  importation  of  the  same. 


CORNELIAN. 


F,  CornalinCy  Sarde. 

G.  Karneol. 

D.  Karneol. 

I.  Cornalina • 

S.  Corner: na. 

P.  Cornelina ,  Corneirina. 


DA.  Karneol. 

SW.  Karneol . 

POL.  Sardyk. 

R.  Seredolik. 

L.  Carneolus ,  Sardus. 


The  Cornelian  is  a  precious  stone  of  which  there  are  three 
kinds*,  the  red,  the  yellow,  and  the  white.  The  red  Cor¬ 
nelian  is  very  well  known  among  us;  of  a  fine,  compact, 
and  close  texture,  glossy  surface,  and  of  all  degrees  of  red, 
from  the  palest  flesh  colour,  to  the  deepest  blood  red;  it  is 
found  in  roundish  or  oval  masses,  much  like  our  common 
pebbles.  It  is  generally  free  from  spots,  clouds,  or  variega¬ 
tions,  but  sometimes  veined  very  beautifully  with  an  ex¬ 
tremely  pale  red  or  with  white. 

The  Cornelian  is  tolerably  hard,  and  capable  of  a  very 
good  polish.  The  Ancients  have  recommended  it  in 
medicine,  but  at  present  they  are  only  used  for  seals,  trin¬ 
kets,  &c. 

The  finest  Cornelians  are  those  of  the  East  Indies;  but 
there  are  very  handsome  ones  found  in  the  rivers  of  Silesia 
and  Bohemia;  and  we  have  some  not  despicable  ones  also 
in  England. 


p 


n4 

CORTEX  SIMAROUB^E. 


F.  Simarouba. 

G.  Ruhrnxurzel . 

D.  Roodenloop  • -wort el . 
I.  Simaruba. 

S.  Simaruba. 


P.  Simaroba. 

DA.  Simaruba. 

SW.  Simaruba . 

L.  Cortex  simarouba . 


Cortex  simaroubse  is  the  bark  of  the  root  of  a  species  of 
terebinthus,  or  birch  tree,  not  yet  sufficiently  described. 
This  bark  is  thick,  and  transudes  a  clear  transparent  resin, 
very  odoriferous,  and  resembling  mastich ;  it  yields  also 
a  more  fluid  resin  by  incision,  which  has  much  the  smell 
and  appearance  of  turpentine. 

This  article  comes  from  Guiana,  and  is  the  most  ef¬ 
fectual  remedy  hitherto  known,  in  bloody  fluxes. 


CORTEX  WINTERANUS,  or  cortex  winteri. 


F.  Ecorce  de  Winter ,  Ecorce 
sans  pareil  ou  sine  pari. 

G.  Wintersrindey  Amerika- 
nische  ge'uourzrinde . 

D.  Winter  shark. 

I.  Scorza  Magelanica. 


S,  Corteza  Winter  ana, 
o  Magelanica 
P.  Canella  de  Winter . 
DA.  Vinter  shark. 

SW.  Vintersbark. 

L.  Cortex  Winteranus ,  s. 
Magellanicus. 


This  is  the  bark  of  a  tree,  first  brought  from  the  straights 
of  Magellan,  by  Captain  Winter,  in  his  voyage  with  Sir 
Francis  Drake.  It  is  aromatic,  and  found  of  good  use 
against  the  scurvy.  It  also  invigorates  the  blood,  is  carmi¬ 
native  and  stomachic. 

The  bark  of  the  canella  alba,  wild  cinnamon,  or  bastard 
Cortex  Winteranus,  usually  sold  under  the  name  of 
Cortex  Winteranus,  consists  of  two  parts,  the  outward 
and  inner  ;  the  outward  bark  is  as  thin  as  a  milled  shil¬ 
ling,  of  a  whitish  ash  or  grey  colour,  with  light  spots 
here  and  there  interspersed  upon  it,  and  several  shallow 
furrows  of  a  darker  colour,  inward,  variously  through  it, 
and  making  it  rough;  the  inward  bark  is  much  thicker 
than  cinnamon,  and  twice  as  thick  as  the  outer  coat, 
smooth  and  of  a  lighter  complexion,  of  ^  much  more  bi^ 


ting  and  aromatic  taste,  somewhat  like  that  of  cloves, 
not  glutinous  like  cinnamon,  but  dry  and  crumbling  be¬ 
tween  the  teeth.  It  is  cured  without  any  difficulty,  by 
drying  in  the  shade.  What  is  taken  from  the  branches  is 
thinner,  and  rather  milder  than  that  from  the  body  of  the 
tree;  more  nearly  approaching  to  the  true  cinnamon. 

This  bark  very  much  resembles  cassia  lignea,  and  though 
different  in  appearance  from  the  true  Cortex  Winteranus, 
yet  it  is  so  like  it  in  taste  and  virtue,  that  it  may  very  well 
serve  as  a  substitute. 


COTTON-WOOL. 


F.  Coton  en  laine . 

G.  Baum'ivolle. 

D.  Katoen ,  Boom'wol. 
I.  Cotone ,  Bambagia. 
S.  Algo  don. 

P.  Algodao . 


DA.  Bomuld . 

SW.  Bomull. 

POL.  Banvclna. 

R.  Cblobtschataja  butnaga 
L.  Gossypium ,  Bomb  ax. 


Cotton-wool  is  a  soft,  downy  substance,  found  on  the 
gossypium  or  cotton-plant,  which  is  of  the  shrubby  kind, 
and  when  full  grown,  resembles  the  raspberry  shrub. 

There  are  different  species  of  gossypium,  all  the  natives 
of  warmer  climates.  1.  The  common  herbaceous  Cotton, 
which  creeps  along  the  ground,  has  yellow  flowers,  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  large  oval  pods,  furnished  with  seeds  and  Cotton 
wool.  2.  The  hairy  American  Cotton,  has  hairy  stalks, 
two  or  three  feet  high.  3.  The  Barbadoes  shrubby  Cot¬ 
ton,  has  a  shrubby  stalk,  branching  four  or  five  feet  high. 
4-.  The  tree  Cotton,  has  an  upright  woody  stalk,  branching 
six  or  eight  feet  high.  The  flowers  and  pods  of  the  three 
latter  species  are  like  those  of  the  first.  The  three  spe¬ 
cies  first  enumerated  are  annual;  but  the  fourth  is  peren¬ 
nial,  both  in  stalk  and  root;  and  the  common  herbaceous 
Cotton  is  the  plant  most  generally  cultivated. 

The  Cotton-wool  shrub  is  propagated  by  the  seed,  which 
in  the  West  India  islands  is  sown  in  regular  lines,  about 
five  feet  asunder,  at  the  latter  end  of  September,  or  begin¬ 
ning  of  October;  and  at  first  but  slightly  covered,  but  af¬ 
ter  it  springs  up,  and  becomes  a  plant,  the  root  is  well 
moulded,  and  the  ground  hoed  frequently.  It  grows  from 
four  to  six  feet  high,  and  produces  two  crops  annually. 


116 


the  first  in  eight,  and  the  second  in  twelve  months,  from 
the  time  of  sowing;  and  the  produce  of  each  tree  is  about 
one  pound  weight.  When  the  pods  are  come  to  maturity 
they  burst  open  and  disclose  their  seeds,  intermixed  with 
the  flock  or  wool.  When  great  part  of  the  pods  are  thus 
expanded  the  crop  begins.  The  wool  is  picked,  and  af¬ 
terwards  cleared  from  the  seeds  by  a  convenient  machine, 
of  very  simple  contrivance,  called  a  gin,  composed  of  two 
or  three  wooden  rollers,  ranged  horizontally,  close  and  pa¬ 
rallel  to  each  other,  in  a  frame;  at  each  extremity  they  are 
toothed,  or  channelled  longitudinally,  corresponding  one 
with  the  other;  and  the  central  roller  being  moved  with  a 
treadel,  makes  the  other  two  revolve  in  a  contrary  direction. 
The  Cotton-wool  is  laid,  in  small  quantities  at  a  time,  up¬ 
on  these  rollers,  whilst  they  are  in  motion,  and  readily 
passing  between  them,  drops  into  a  sack,  placed  underneath 
to  receive  it,  leaving  the  seeds  behind,  which  are  too  large 
to  pass  with  it.  The  wool  thus  discharged  from  the  seeds, 
comes  afterwards  to  be  handpicked,  and  cleansed  tho¬ 
roughly  from  any  little  particles  of  the  pods,  or  other  sub¬ 
stances  which  may  be  adhering  to  it.  It  is  then  stowed 
in  large  bags,  where  it  is  well  trod  by  a  negro  whilst  it 
is  thrown  in,  that  it  may  lie  close  and  compact;  and  the 
better  to  answer  this  purpose,  some  water  is  every  now 
and  then  sprinkled  upon  the  outside  of  the  bag.  The 
weight  of  a  marketable  bag  of  West  India  Cotton  is  usu¬ 
ally  three  hundred  pounds;  and  that  weight  per  acre  may 
be  expected  in  the  most  productive  plantations;  but  for 
an  average  of  rich  and  poor  land,  only  two  hundred  and 
seventy  pounds  weight  can  be  reckoned  in  Jamaica. 

The  finest  sort  of  Cotton-wool  comes  from  the  island 
of  Bourbon;  then  follow  the  growths  of  the  Brazils,  Ber- 
bice,  Surrinarn,  Tobago,  &c.  that  of  Surat  in  the  £ast 
Indies,  is  the  most  inferior  kind. 

The  Cyprus  Cotton-wool,  on  account  of  its  whiteness, 
Softness,  and  the  length  of  its  filaments,  is  accounted  the 
best  of  the  Levant  Cotton.  They  reckon  it  a  good  crop, 
when  the  produce  of  the  whole  island  amounts  to  five 
thousand  bags;  under  the  government  of  the  Venetians  it 
produced  thirty  thousand  bags. 

No  small  quantity  of  Cotton-wool  is  gathered  in  the 
Terra  di  Bari,  and  the  distri&s  of  the  cities  of  Tursi,  and 


117 


Gravina  in  the  Kingdom  of  Naples;  but  the  best  Neapo¬ 
litan  Cotton-wool  grows  in  the  province  of  Lecce. 

The  season  for  sowing  the  Cotton  plant  in  the  Levant 
and  Italy,  and  particularly  in  the  island  of  Cyprus,  is  the 
month  of  April,  or  earlier.  The  ground  for  that  purport 
is  prepared  in  the  same  manner  as  the  corn  fields  of 
Italy.  Furrows  being  formed  in  the  earth,  the  seeds  are 
put  into  them  in  the  same  manner  as  French  beans.  The 
young  plants  come  up  with  two  yawning  lobes,  exactly 
like  the  cotyledones  of  the  common  bean,  and  as  soon  as 
they  appear  above  ground,  the  weakest  are  pulled  up,  and 
none  left  but  those  which  are  strong  and  vigorous.  In 
the  months  of  June  and  July,  great  care  is  taken  to  luxe 
the  earth  gently  around  them,  and  the  crop  is  collected 
in  the  months  of  OClober  and  November.  As  some  little 
time  is  requisite  before  the  seed  can  be  freed  from  its 
cover  or  husk,  the  first  exportation  does  not  take  place 
till  February  or  March,  the  year  following. 

It  is  supposed  that  no  fewer  than  120,000  persons  are 
constantly  employed  in  Great  Britain  in  different  branches 
of  the  manufacture  of  this  single  staple. 


COWRIES,  CORIS,  CAURIS. 


F.  Coris ,  CauriSy  Bouges. 

G.  Kauris ,  Schnakenkopfe. 
D.  Kauris ,  Slangenboofdjes , 
I.  Cori,  Porcellanc . 

S.  Buciosy  Sigueyes. 


P.  Bucios,  Z,imbos» 
DA.  Kauris. 

SW.  Kauris . 

R.  Kauris. 


Cowries  are  small,  and  exceedingly  white  shells,  brought 
from  the  Maldavia  islands,  and  used  as  money  in  the 
greatest  part  of  the  East  Indies,  particularly  in  the  states 
of  the  Great  Mogul.  These  shells,  though  in  all  appear¬ 
ance  a  production  of  the  sea,  are  however  found  on  land, 
and  dug  for  pretty  deep  in  the  ground. 

The  Cowries  are  used  also  in  the  trade  which  the  Eu¬ 
ropeans  carry  on  along  the  coast  of  Guinea.  The  Dutch, 
for  tlie  general  part,  furnish  such  European  nations  as 
trade  for  slaves,  with  cowries;  and  the  vast  quantities  they 
sell  will  be  no  matter  of  surprize,  upon  considering,  that 
the  French  give  sometimes  eighty  pounds  weight  of  Cow- 


118 


rtes  for  a  negro  ;  and  for  gold,  ivory,  wax,  and  other 
commodities  in  proportion. 

The  negroes  not  only  use  the  Cowries  for  money,  Bfctt 
also  for  collars  and  bracelets  to  adorn  themselves. 

CREAM  OF  TARTAR;  see  ArgcL 


CUBEBS. 


F.  Cubebes. 

G.  Kubeben. 
D  Koebeben. 
I.  Cubebi. 

S.  Cubebas . 
P.  Cobebas. 


DA.  Cubeber. 
SW.  Kobeber. 
POL.  Kubeby. 
R.  Kubebu. 

L.  Cubebce . 


Cubebs  are  a  small  dried  fruit,  resembling  a  grain  of 
pepper,  but  often  somewhat  longer;  brought  into  Europe 
from  the  island  of  Java,  & c.  They  are  to  be  chosen  large, 
fresh,  and  sound.  Cubebs  are  an  aromatic,  though  not 
of  a  very  strong  smell;  acrid  and  pungent  to  the  taste, 
though  less  so  than  pepper.  They  abound  in  a  fine,  thin, 
essential  oil,  which  may  be  separated  from  them  by  distil¬ 
lation. 

Cubebs  are  used  in  the  kitchen  as  well  as  in  medicine, 


CUMMIN. 

F.  Cumin. 

G.  Kumin y  hanger  Kummel, 

D.  Komyn. 

I.  C amino ,  Cumino.  ' 

S.  Comino. 

P.  Cuminho ,  Cominhos . 

DA.  Kummen. 

Cummin  is  an  umbelliferous  plant,  resembling  fennel, 
but  much  smaller.  It  is  annual,  a  native  of  Egypt  and 
Ethiopia,  and  cultivated  in  the  islands  of  Sicily  and  Malta, 
from  whence  we  are  supplied  with  the  seeds,  which  are 


SW.  Kummin ,  Cumin ,  Spis > 
kumin. 

POL.  Kmin ,  Kmin  kramny. 
R.  Kmin ,  Timon. 

L.  Cyminum ,  Cuminum  se- 
mine  long: ore. 


119 


accounted  good  carminatives  and  stomachics;  but  their 
principal  use  is  in  external  applications. 


CURRANTS. 


F.  Raisins  de  Corintbe . 
G-.  Korintben. 


P.  Pass  as  de  Ccrinto. 

POL,  Rozinki  male,  drolne. 
R.  Korinka ,  Opoek . 

L.  Pas  suite  Corintbiacee . 


D.  Kor  enters,  Kr enters. 
I.  U<ve  passe  di  Corinto. 


S.  Pas  as  de  Cur  into. 

By  the  name  of  Currants,  we  not  only  understand  the 
fruit  of  a  species  of  grossularia,  growing  in  our  gardens, 
but  particularly  a  smaller  kind  of  dried  black  grapes, 
brought  principally  from  Zante  and  Cephalonia.  They 
were  formerly  brought  also  from  the  Morea,  or  isthmus 
of  Corinth,  whence  their  name  Currants  or  Corinths;  this 
plantation  however  now  produces  no  more,  the  Turks  not 
allowing  large  vessels  to  enter  the  gulph,  to  take  them  off 
the  hands  of  the  cultivators. 

They  gather  the  Currants  in  the  Archipelago  in  August, 
and  dispose  them  in  couches  on  the  ground  till  they  dry; 
then  clean  and  lay  them  up  in  magazines,  pouring  them 
in  at  a  hole,  till  the  magazine  is  full:  when  they  cling  so 
fast  together,  by  their  own  weight,  that  they  are  forced 
to  be  dug  out  with  iron  instruments. 

To  cask  them  for  exportation,  they  have  people  who 
grease  their  feet  and  legs,  and  tread  them  close,  that  they 
may  keep  the  better. 

Zante  annually  produces  a  sufficiency  to  load  five  or  six 
vessels,  Cephalonia  three  or  four,  and  the  other  islands 
one;  by  far  the  greatest  part  being  imported  into  Eng¬ 
land. 

Currants  are  also  brought  from  the  Lipari  Islands,  but 
this  kind  is  larger,  and  less  esteemed,  than  the  Zante 
and  Cephalonia  growth. 

Currants  should  be  chosen  small,  new,  and  in  large 
masses.  When  packed  close,  they  will  keep  sound  for 
two  or  three  years. 


.  ,.r«  .  ,  ■  ,  - 


\Y 


I 

y.> 


-  \ 

/ 


( 


121 


DATES. 


P.  Dattes 
G.  Datteln . 

D.  Da  dels,  Daayen. 
I.  D alters. 

S.  Datiles. 

P.  Tatn&ras. 


DA.  Dadeler . 

S  W  Dadlar . 
POL  Daktyle . 
R.  Finiki. 

L.  Dadlyli. 


Dates  are  a  fruit,  somewhat  in  the  shape  of  an  acorn. 
They  are  composed  of  a  thin,  light  and  glossy  membrane, 
containing  a  fine,  soft,  and  pulpy  substance,  which  is  firm, 
sweet,  and  somewhat  vinous  to  the  taste,  esculent  and 
wholesome;  and  within  this  is  inclosed,  a  solid,  tough  and 
hard  kernel,  of  a  pale  grey  colour  on  the  outside,  and 
finely  marbled  within,  like  the  nutmeg. 

This  fruit  is  the  produce  of  the  phoenix  dactylifera, 
or  Date  tree;  a  native  of  Africa,  and  the  eastern  countries, 
where  it  grows  to  the  height  of  fifty,  sixty,  and  one  hun¬ 
dred  feet.  It  is  produced  also  in  many  parts  of  Europe, 
but  never  ripens  perfectly  there.  The  best  are  brought 
from  Tunis;  they  are  likewise  very  fine  and  good  in  Egypt, 
and  in  many  parts  <^f  the  East. 

Date  trees  are  planted  in  the  neighbourhood  of  rivulets 
or  waters;  for  they  require  much  moisture.  To  propagate 
them,  shoots  of  the  best  trees  are  taken,  and  planted  at  a 
small  distance  from  one  another.  At  the  end  of  three  or 
four  years  these  shoots  begin  to  bear  fruit,  but  this  fruit, 
is  yet  dry,  without  sweetness,  and  even  without  kernels; 
and  they  never  reach  the  highest  degree  of  perfection  of 
which  they  are  susceptible,  till  they  are  about  fifteen  to 
twenty  years  old.  This  tree  is  also  propagated  from  the 
seeds:  but  in  that  case  never  produces  such  good  fruit  as 
when  raised  from  shoots. 

Those  Dates  are  esteemed  the  best  which  are  large, 
soft,  yellowish,  with  few  or  no  wrinkles,  and  full  of 

Q 


* 


122 


pulp;  either  of  a  good  white  throughout,  or  else  red¬ 
dish  towards  the  surface,  and  white  towards  the  kernels. 

Dates  are  preserved  in  three  different  ways ;  some  press¬ 
ed  and  dried,  others  pressed  more  moderately,  and  others 
not  pressed  at  all,  only  moistened  with  the  juice  of  other 
Dates  as  they  are  packed  up,  which  is  done  in  baskets  or 
skins.  Those  preserved  in  this  last  way,  are  much  the 
best. 

In  regard  to  their  medicinal  virtues,  Dates  are  said  to 
strengthen  the  stomach  and  intestines;  they  are  also  re¬ 
commended  in  diseases  of  the  breast,  &c. 

In  Upper  Egypt,  many  families  subsist  almost  entirely 
upon  this  fruit.  The  stones  are  as  hard  as  horn,  and  no 
body  would  imagine  that  any  animal  could  eat  them,  but 
the  Egyptians  break,  grind,  and  for  want  of  better  food, 
give  them  to  their  camels  to  eat.  In  Barbary,  they  turn 
handsome  beads  for  paternosters  of  these  stones.  Of  the 
leaves  they  make  baskets,  or  rather  a  kind  of  short  bags, 
which  are  used  in  Turkey,  on  journies  and  in  the  houses. 
In  Egypt  they  make  fly-flaps  of  them,  and  brushes  to 
clean  their  sophas  and  clothes.  The  hard  boughs  they 
use  for  fences  about  their  gardens,  and  cages  to  keep 
their  poultry  in.  The  trunk  or  stem,  when  split,  is  used 
for  the  same  purposes,  and  also  for  timber  and  fire 
wood.  The  weblike  integument  covering  the  tree  be¬ 
tween  the  boughs,  has  threads  which  run  perpendicularly 
and  horizontally  crossing  each  other,  in  the  same  man¬ 
ner  as  the  cocoa-nut  tree;  this  is  of  considerable  use  in 
Egypt,  where  they  make  all  their  ropes  and  rigging 
of  the  smaller  vessels  with  it.  It  is  esteemed  strong  and 
lasting. 


DEALS. 


P.  Tabcinhas . 
DA.  Daler . 
SW.  Tiljor . 
POL.  Parcice, 
R.  Do  ski . 


F.  Platicbes. 

G.  Dielen. 
D.  Deelen . 


I.  Ta-uoky  Plane. 
S.  Tablas. 


Deals  are  a  thin  kind  of  fir  planks,  formed  by  sawing 
the  trunck  of  a  tree  into  a  great  many  longitudinal  divisi- 


123 


sfis,  of  more  or  less  thickness,  according  to  the  purposes 
they  are  intended  to  serve. 

A  very  good  method  of  seasoning  Deals,  is  to  throw 
them  into  salt  water,  as  soon  as  they  are  sawed,  and 
keep  them  there  three  or  four  days,  frequently  turning 
them. 

Deals  are  imported  into  this  country,  from  Christiana 
and  other  ports  of  Norway;  from  Dantzig  and  various 
parts  of  Prussia;  and  red  and  white  wood  Deals,  from 
St.  Petersburg,  Archangel,  Narva,  Memel,  &c. 

Deals  are  sold,  either  by  the  piece,  like  Dantzig  Deals, 
or  by  the  reduced  or  standard  hundred  like  the  Russia 
and  Memel  Deals;  or  by  the  long  hundred  of  one  hun¬ 
dred  and  twenty  Deals,  like  the  Norway  Deals. 

A  standard,  or  reduced  Deal,  is  one  inch  and  a  half 
thick,  eleven  inches  wide,  and  twelve  feet  long.  A  stand¬ 
ard,  or  reduced  hundred,  is  one  hundred  and  twenty 
times  that  quantity. 


DIAMOND. 


F.  Diamant. 

G.  Diamant. 

D.  Diamant ,  Demant. 
I.  Diamante. 

S.  Diamante . 

P.  Diamante. 


DA.  Diamant. 

SW.  Dema?it,  Diamant . 
POL.  Dymant. 

R.  Almas. 

L.  Adamas. 


This  is  the  most  valuable  and  hardest  of  all  gems.  It 
is,  when  pure,  perfectly  clear,  and  pellucid  as  the  purest 
water;  and  eminently  distinguished  from  all  other  sub¬ 
stances,  by  its  vivid  splendor,  and  the  brightness  of  its 
reflections,  never  fouled  by  any  admixture  of  earthy  or 
other  coarse  matter;  susceptible  of  elegant  tinges  from 
metalline  particles,  giving  fire  with  steel,  not  fermenting 
with  acid  menstruums,  scarcely  calculable  by  any  degree 
of  fire,  and  of  one  simple  and  permanent  appearance  in 
all  lights. 

The  finest  Diamonds  are  those  of  a  complexion  like  a 
drop  of  pure  water.  If  they  are  tinctured  yellow,  blue, 
green,  or  red,  in  a  high  degree,  they  are  next  in  esteem  ; 
but  if  tinctured  with  these  colours,  only  in  a  low  degree, 
the  value  of  them  is  greatly  diminished.  There  are  also 
Diamonds  of  other  complexions ;  such  as  brown,  resem- 


bling  the  brownest  sugarcandy ;  or  of  a  dark  hue,  likis 
dusky  iron.  In  the  Philosophical  Commerce  of  Arts,  we 
are  even  told  of  a  black  Diamond.  The  first  water  in 
Diamonds,  means  the  greatest  purity  and  perfection,  like 
the  purest  water.  When  they  fall  short  of  this  perfection, 
they  are  said  to  be  of  the  second  and  third  water,  & c. 
till  the  stone  may  be  properly  called  a  coloured  one. 

The  Diamond  is  extremely  various  in  shape  and  size $ 
being  found  in  the  greatest  quantity  very  small,  and  the 
larger  ones  very  seldom  met  with.  The  proper  and  de¬ 
terminate  figure  into  which  it  must  concrete,  when  not 
impeded  by  any  accident  in  its  formation,  is  an  inequila¬ 
teral  octohedron ;  and  often  its  several  surfaces  in  this 
figure,  are  as  bright  as  if  polished  by  art.  The  Diamond 
is  likewise  often  thrown  into  two  other  figures,  both  seem¬ 
ing  also  regular  ones  5  the  one  a  prismatic  columnar  one  of 
six  angles,  the  other  an  oblong  quadrilateral  column,  with 
two  truncated  ends.  Besides  these  regular  figures,  it  is 
every  day  found  in  numberless  other  mishapen  forms. 

This  gem  is  found  only  in  the  East  Indies,  and  in  Bra¬ 
sil  in  South  America.  In  the  East  Indies  there  are  two 
mines  and  two  rivers  from  whence  it  is  drawn.  The  mines 
are,  that  of  Raolconda,  in  the  province  of  Carnatica;  and 
that  of  Gani  or  Coulour,  seven  days  journey  from  Gol- 
conda  eastwardly.  The  two  rivers  are  that  of  Gonal,  near 
the  town  of  Soumelpour,  in  Bengal  j  and  that  of  Succudan 
in  the  island  of  Borneo. 

Diamonds,  like  all  other  gems,  are  divided  into  oriental 
and  occidental ;  the  finest  and  hardest  being  called  orien¬ 
tal,  whether  produced  in  the  east  or  west ;  as  the  Dia¬ 
monds  of  Brasil  equal  the  finest  oriental  ones. 

The  art  of  cutting  these  precious  stones,  was  invented 
in  1476,  by  Louis  de  Berquen,  a  native  of  Bruges.  They 
are  cut  and  polished  by  means  of  a  mill,  which  turns  a 
wheel  of  soft  iron,  sprinkled  over  with  Diamond-dust, 
mixed  with  oil  of  olives.  The  same  dust,  well  ground, 
and  diluted  with  water  and  vinegar,  is  used  in  the  sawing 
of  Diamonds,  which  is  performed  with  an  iron  or  brass 
wire,  as  fine  as  a  hair. 

The  value  of  Diamonds  among  jewellers  is  thus  calcu¬ 
lated.  Supposing  the  value  of  a  rough  Diamond  to  be 
two  pounds  per  carat,  to  find  the  value  of  those  of  greater 
weight,  they  multiply  the  square  of  their  weight  by  two : 


125 


thus  the  value  of  a  rough  Diamond  weighing  four  carats, 
is  equal  4x4x2  =  16x2  =£ .32.  To  find  the  value  of 
wrought  Diamonds,  they  suppose  half  their  weight  lost 
in  manufacturing  them,  and  therefore  multiply  the  square 
of  double  their  weight  by  two  •,  thus  the  value  of  a  wrought 
Diamond,  weighing  three  carats,  is  equal  6x6x2=36 
X2  =  f.72. 

The  largest  Diamond  ever  known  in  the  world,  is  that 
belonging  to  the  king  of  Portugal,  which  was  found  in 
Brasil,  and  weighs  1680  carats,  and  according  to  the  above 
mentioned  calculation,  is  worth  £.5,644,800  sterling,  but 
has  been  valued  by  connoisseurs  at  224  millions  sterling. 
The  famous  Diamond,  which  adorns  the  sceptre  of  the 
Empress  of  Russia,  weighs  779  carats. 

DITTANY,  WHITE  DITTANY,  FRAXINELLA. 


F.  Fraxinelle ,  Di flame  blancs 

G,  Weisser  Dipt  am. 

D.  Witte  Dipt  am. 

I.  Frassinella ,  Dittamo  bianco. 
S.  Chit  an ,  Diflamo  bianco , 
Fresnillo. 

P.  Fraxinello ,  Diflamo  branco. 


DA.  Haiud  Diptamrod. 

SW.  Huit  Dipt  an. 

POL.  Dyptan  bialy. 

R.  Bad  an. 

L.  Fraxinella,  Diflamnus  al¬ 
bas. 


This  is  a  medicinal  plant,  reputed  excellent  against  the 
bitings  of  venomous  beasts,  worms  engendered  in  the  hu¬ 
man  body,  and  the  like.  Its  root,  wherein  all  its  virtue 
is  lodged,  is  about  the  thickness  of  a  finger,  and  is  fre¬ 
quently  divided  into  a  number  of  little  branches  ;  its  co¬ 
lour  is  white,  its  taste  bitter,  and  its  smell  strong,  some¬ 
what  like  the  scent  of  a  he-goat.  It  must  be  chosen  white, 
both  inside  and  outside,  not  fibrous,  and  well  cleaned.— 
There  are  several  other  kinds  of  Dittany  *,  as  the  bastard 
Dittany,  and  the  wild  Dittany. 


126 


DOWN. 


F.  Du<V€t. 

G.  D unen,  Flaumfedern . 
£>.  Dons. 

I.  Penna  matt  a ,  Piumini. 
S.  Flojel ,  Plumazo. 

P.  Frouxel . 


DA.  Duu>t. 
SW.  Tjun. 
POL.  Puchy 
R.  /VF. 

L.  Pluma. 


Down,  are  the  shortest,  smoothest,  softest,  and  most 
delicate  feathers  of  birds,  particularly  geese,  ducks  and 
swans  ;  growing  on  their  neck  and  part  of  their  stomach. 

Down  is  a  commodity  of  most  countries  •,  but  that  in 
most  repute  for  fineness,  lightness,  and  warmth,  comes 
from  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  other  northern  countries. 
See  Ederdon. 

Ostrich's  Down ,  called  otherwise  ostrich’s  hair,  and 
sometimes  wool,  is  of  two  sorts ;  that  called  the  fine  of 
ostrich,  is  used  by  hatters  in  the  manufadture  of  common 
hats ;  and  that  called  coarse  of  ostrich,  serves  for  the 
making  of  list  for  fine  white  cloth. 


DRAGON’s-BLOOD. 


F.  Sang  dragon. 

G.  Drachenblut. 

D.  Draakenbloed. 

I.  Sangue  di  dr  ago. 
S.  Sangro  de  dr  ago. 
P.  Sangue  de  dr  ago. 


DA.  Dragehlod. 

SW.  Drakblod. 

POL.  Smocza  krew. 
R.  Drakono<wa  krow. 
L.  Sanguis  draconis. 


Dragon’s-blood  is  a  gummi  resinous  substance,  brought 
from  the  East  Indies,  either  in  oval  droops  wrapped  up  in 
flag  leaves,  or  in  large  masses,  composed  of  smaller  tears. 
It  is  said  to  be  obtained  from  the  palmijuncus  draco,  the 
calamus  rotang,  the  dracena  draco,  the  pterocarpus  dra¬ 
co,  and  several  other  vegetables. 

The  writers  on  the  materia  medica,  in  general  give  the 
preference  to  the  former,  though  the  others  are  not  un- 
frequently  of  equal  goodness.  The  fine  Dragon’s-blood 
of  either  sort,  breaks  smooth,  free  from  any  visible  im- 


* 


127 


purities,  of  a  dark  red  colour  ;  which  changes,  upon  being 
powdered,  into  an  elegant  bright  crimson. 

Several  artificial  compositions,  coloured  with  the  true 
Dragon’s-blood,  or  brasil  wood,  are  sometimes  sold  in  the 
room  of  this  commodity.  Some  of  these  dissolve  like 
gums  in  water,  others  crackle  in  the  fire,  without  proving 
inflammable ;  whilst  the  genuine  Dragon’s-blood  melts, 
catches  flame,  and  is  not  a£led  on  by  watery  liquors. — 
This  drug,  in  substance,  has  no  sensible  smell  or  taste ; 
when  dissolved,  it  discovers  some  degree  of  warmth  and 
pungency. 

Dragon’s-blood  is  principally  used  as  a  pigment*,  in 
medicine  it  is  very  rarely  employed  in  the  present  practice. 


.  :•  *1'.'  '  1  '  '  .  ••  v 

i 

‘  •  '  ,  '  '  ‘  - 

. ■  •  .  .  ;  :X  ■’ 

•  ■••••■  /  ■  ■  J  >  '  • 

•  .  /.  .  ..  . 

..  •  •  jlr.  .  ..  •.  :•  .  ■  *  v  . 

--  .  :  :>v' 

.  . ,  "-j  ■' .  .  :  '■  .  -v  .X  &  -  .  '  T  :  'iu-t 

• 

:  '  •  '  :  '  ’  .  *  ■ 


V  ■  >  ' 


■ 


.  *-.■  ■  ,  v  ; 


129 


EBONY. 


F.  Bon  d*  Ebene. 

G.  Ebenholz. 

D  Ebbenhout,  Ebbehaut. 
I.  Ebano. 

S.  Ebano. 


DA.  EbeniraCy  Ebenhoh . 
SW.  Ebentrad,  Ebenholu 
POL.  Behan, 

R.  Ebencwoe  derenvo. 

L.  Ebenus. 


P.  Ebano ,  Evano. 

Ebony  is  an  exceedingly  hard  and  heavy  kind  of  wood, 
susceptible  of  a  very  fine  polish,  and  on  that  account 
used  in  mosaic  and  inlaid  works,  for  toys,  &c.  It  is  of 
divers  colours,  most  usually  black,  red,  and  green  ;  pro¬ 
duced  chiefly  in  the  island  of  Madagascar,  and  the  Mau¬ 
ritius. 

Travellers  give  very  different  accounts  of  the  tree  that 
yields  the  black  Ebony  \  some  say  that  it  is  a  sort  of  palm 
tree,  others  a  cytisus,  &c.  M.  Flacourt  tells  us,  that  it 
grows  very  high  and  big,  its  bark  being  black,  and  its 
leaves  resembling  those  of  the  myrtle,  of  a  deep,  dusk)’', 
green  colour. 

Black  Ebony  is  much  preferred  to  that  of  other  colours. 
The  best  is  a  jet  black,  free  of  veins  and  rind,  very  mas¬ 
sive,  astringent,  and  of  an  acrid  pungent  taste.  It  yields 
an  agreeable  perfume,  when  laid  on  burning  coals  :  when 
green,  it  readily  takes  fire,  from  the  abundance  of  its  fat. 

Green  Ebony,  besides  Madagascar  and  the  Mauritius, 
likewise  grows  in  the  Antilles,  especially  in  the  isle  of 
Tobago.  The  tree  that  yields  it  is  very  bushy  ;  its  leaves 
are  smooth,  and  of  a  fine  green  colour.  Beneath  its  bark 
is  a  white  rind,  about  two  inches  thick  \  all  under  which, 
to  the  very  heart,  is  a  deep  green,  approaching  towards 
a  black,  though  sometimes  streaked,  with  yellow  veins. 
Its  use  is  not  confined  to  inlaid  work,  it  is  likewise  good 
in  dying,  as  yielding  a  fine  green  tincture. 

Of  red  Ebony,  called  also  Grenadilla,  we  know  little 
more  than  the  name. 

Ebony  is  now  less  used  than  anciently,  since  the  disco¬ 
very  of  giving  other  hard  woods  a  black  colour. 

There  is  a  sort  of  Ebony  coming  from  the  West  Indies, 
which  is  either  black  or  white  This  bears  a  flower  re- 


R 


130 


sembling  that  of  the  English  broom  ;  seldom  rises  above 
eighteen  feet,  and  in  the  largest  part  of  the  stem,  dtfes 
not  exceed  five  inches  diameter.  It  is  a  fine  timber  wood, 
has  a  smooth  even  grain,  which  takes  a  good  polish,  and 
is  very  proper  for  bed-posts,  and  a  variety  of  turnery 
ware  ;  for  which  purposes  the  black  is  generally  prefer¬ 
red,  the  heart  of  which  is  the  complexion  of  jet.  There 
is  likewise  a  bastard  Ebony,  growing  in  the  West  India 
islands,  called  mountain  Ebony,  which  is  of  a  dark  brown. 


EIDER-DOWN,  ederdon. 


F.  Ederdon ,  Edredon  t  Egledon. 

G.  Eider  dunen. 

D.  Eider  dons. 

] .  Piumini  del  Norte. 

S.  Ederdon  %  Edredon. 


P.  Edredon. 

D  A .  Edderduun . 

SW.  Aderdun,  Dun. 
POL.  Puch  bialoszoro'wy . 
R.  Agatschii  puch. 


Eider-down,  is  a  kind  of  very  fine  down,  coming  from 
Denmark,  Norway,  and  Iceland,  It  is  the  produce  of  a 
species  of  wild  duck,  called  Eider.  To  collect  this  down, 
the  inhabitants,  at  the  risk  of  their  lives,  by  means  of 
cords,  let  themselves  down  the  steepest  precipices,  where 
these  birds  have  their  nests. 

The  down  is  made  up  in  balls,  about  the  size  of  a  fist, 
and  weighing  from  three  to  four  pounds.  It  is  so  fine 
and  soft,  that  if  a  ball  is  opened,  and  the  down  cautiously 
held  over  red  hot  coals,  to  warm,  it  will  completely  fill  a 
bed  for  two  people. 

This  costly  article,  when  fine  and  picked,  costs  in  Den 
ipark,  twelve  shillings  sterling  the  pound,  and  upwards. 


ELEPHANT'S  TEETH ;  see  Ivory. 


'  131 


EMERALD, 


F.  Emeraude . 

G.  Smaragd. 


DA.  Smaragd. 
SW.  Smaragd. 


D.  Smaragd y  Esmeraud. 


POL.  Szmaragd * 
R.  Isumrud. 

L.  Smaragdus. 


I.  Smeraldo. 
S.  Esmeralda. 


P.  E.meralda . 

The  Emerald  is  a  genus  of  precious  stones,  of  a  greetl 
colour. 

Like  other  gems,  this  is  divided  into  oriental  and  occi¬ 
dental.  The  oriental  Emerald,  is  of  the  hardness  of  the 
sapphire  and  ruby,  and  is  second  only  tcf  the  diamond  in. 
lustre  ;  it  is  very  scarce,  and  at  present  only  found  in  the 
kingdom  of  Cambay.  The  American  Emerald  is  of  the 
hardness  of  the  garnet,  and  the  European  somewhat  softer 
than  that,  yet  considerably  harder  than  crystal. 

The  genuine  Emerald  in  its  most  perfeft  state,  is  per¬ 
haps  the  most  beautiful  of  all  the  gems.  It  is  found  of 
various  sizes,  but  usually  small;  great  numbers  of  the 
sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  some  as  large  as  a 
walnut. 

The  Emerald  is  of  different  figures,  sometimes  of  a  peb¬ 
ble-like  form,  but  much  more  frequently  of  a  columnar 
one,  resembling  common  crystal. 

The  Emeralds  of  the  East  Indies  are  evidently  finer 
than  those  of  any  other  part  of  the  world ;  but  our  jew¬ 
ellers  seldom  meeting  with  these,  call  the  American-  Eme¬ 
ralds  the  oriental,  and  usually  sell  crystal,  accidentally 
tinged  with  green,  under  the  name  of  the  occidental 
Emerald. 


132 


EMERY,  EMERlL. 


F.  Emenly  Emeri . 

G.  Srnirgel. 

P.  A  merit,  Smergel. 

1.  Smeriglio ,  Smeregio . 
S.  Estneril. 

P.  EsmeriL 


DA.  Smergel. 
SW.  Srnirgel . 
POL.  Szmergiel. 
R.  Nashdak • 

L.  Smiris. 


Emery  is  a  sort  of  metallic  stone,  of  which  three  kinds 
are  usually  distinguished  ;  the  Spanish,  red,  and  common 
Emery. 

The  first  sort  is  found  in  the  gold  mines  of  Peru,  and 
being  judged  a  kind  of  marcasite  of  that  rich  metal,  is 
prohibited  to  be  exported.  The  red  Emery  is  found  in 
copper  mines,  and  the  little  there  is  of  it  in  England, 
comes  from  Sweden  and  Denmark.  The  common  Eme¬ 
ry,  is  taken  out  of  iron  mines,  and  almost  the  only  sort 
used  in  England  •,  it  is  of  a  brownish  colour,  bordering  a 
little  on  red,  exceedingly  hard,  and  in  consequence  diffi¬ 
cult  to  pulverize. 

The  English  are  the  only  people  who  have  the  art  of 
reducing  common  Emery  into  powder,  and  thus  send  it  to 
their  neighbours.  Of  the  powder,  the  most  subtile  and 
impalpable  is  the  best  •,  as  to  the  stone,  it  should  be  cho¬ 
sen  of  a  high  colour,  and  as  free  of  the  rock  as  possible. 

The  consumption  of  Emery  is  very  considerable  among 
the  armourers,  cutlers,  locksmith’s,  glaziers,  lapidaries, 
masons,  and  other  mechanics  ;  some  of  whom  use  it  to 
polish  and  burnish  iron  and  steel  works  j  others,  to  cut 
i  and  scallop  glass,  marble,  and  precious  stones. 


EPSOM  SALT. 


F.  Sel  d ’  Epson. 

G.  Epsom  Sa!z. 
D.  Epsom  zout . 

I.  Sale  di  Epsom . 


S.  Sal  de  Epsom. 
P.  Sal  de  Epsom. 
DA.  Epsom  salt . 
SW.  Epsom  salt . 


Epsoin  salt  is  the  result  of  a  combination  of  the  vi¬ 
triolic  acid  with  the  earthy  substance  called  magnesia. — 


1SS 


The  vitriolic  acid  is  found  combined  with  magnesia,  iia 
great  plenty,  in  the  bitter  liquor  which  remains  after  the 
crystallization  of  common  salt.  If  this  liquor  is  set  by 
for  some  time  in  a  leaden  vessel,  a  large  quantity  of  salt 
shoots,  very  much  resembling  Glauber’s  salt,  and  fre¬ 
quently  sold  in  lieu  of  it.  If  after  the  first  crystallization 
of  the  bittern  the  remainder  is  gently  evaporated  further, 
a  fresh  quantity  of  the  same  salt  will  shoot  :  and  if  the 
liquor  is  then  hastily  evaporated,  a  salt  will  still  be  crys¬ 
tallized  ;  but  instead  of  large  regular  crystals,  it  will  con¬ 
crete  into  very  small  ones,  having  something  of  the  ap¬ 
pearance  of  snow,  when  taken  out  of  the  liquid.  This 
salt,  shot  into  small  crystals,  is  termed  Epsom  salt,  from 
its  being  first  produced  from  the  purging  water  at  Epsom 
in  England.  The  bittern  yielding  this  salt  in  such  great 
plenty,  these  waters  were  soon  neglefled,  as  they  afford¬ 
ed  it  but  very  sparingly. 


ESSENCES. 

F.  Essences.  S.  E send as. 

G.  Essenzen.  P.  Essencias. 

1.  Essenze . 

Essence  in  chemistry,  denotes  the  purest,  most  subtile, 
and  balsamic  part  of  a  body ;  extracted  either  by  simple 
expression,  or  by  means  of  fire,  from  fruits,  flowers,  and 
the  like.  Of  these  there  are  a  great  variety  used  on  ac¬ 
count  of  their  agreeable  smell  and  taste,  by  apothecaries, 
perfumers,  and  others.  Those  extra&ed  by  means  of  fire, 
with  more  propriety  are  to  be  counted  among  the  essential 
oils. 

Essence  of  bergamot ,  is  a  fragrant  essence,  extracted 
from  a  fruit  which  is  produced  by  ingrafting  a  branch  of 
lemon-tree  upon  the  stock  of  a  bergamot  pear.  It  is  im¬ 
ported  from  Italy  and  Sicily,  particularly  from  Reggio 
and  Messina.  This  spirit  is  extracted,  by  paring  off  the 
rind  of  the  fruit  with  a  broad  knife,  pressing  the  peel  be¬ 
tween  wooden  pincers  against  a  spunge,  and  as  soon  as 
the  spunge  is  saturated,  the  volatile  liquor  is  squeezed  in* 
to  a  phial. 


# 


Essence  of  orange ,  and  Essence  of  lemon ,  are  prepared  ift 
a  similar  manner,  and  come  from  the  same  countries. 

The  Essence  of  lavender ,  of  thyme ,  of  rosemary ,  of  anise , 
of  clovesy  of  cinnamon^  &c.  are  obtained  by  means  of  fire. 
Essence  of  neroli ;  see  Oranges . 


135 


FEATHERS,  bed-feathers. 


F.  Plumes,  Plumes  a  lit . 

G.  Federn,  Bettfedern. 
D.  Bedveern,  P luinien. 
I.  Piume . 


P.  Plumas. 

DA.  Fiere,  Sengefiere* 
SW  Fjddrar. 

POL.  Psora. 

R.  Per  a. 


S,  Plumas . 


The  Feathers  of  birds  make  a  considerable  article  of 
commerce,  particularly  those  of  the  ostrich,  heron,  swan, 
peacock,  goose,  and  other  poultry  ;  for  plumes,  ornaments 
of  the  head,  filling  of  beds,  and  writing  pens.  See 

Quills. 

There  are  scarce  any  birds,  but  what  Bed-feathers  may 
be  procured  from,  particularly  those  of  the  domestic  kind  ; 
yet  swans,  geese  and  ducks,  are  those  that  furnish  most, 
and  the  best. 

Geese  are  plucked  three  times  a  year ;  towards  the  end 
of  May,  about  Midsummer,  and  at  the  latter  end  of  Au¬ 
gust  ;  but  chiefly  When  the  Feathers  are  ripe,  that  is, 
when  they  are  perceived  to  fall  off  of  themselves.  The 
Feathers  of  dead  birds  are  in  the  least  esteem,  upon  ac¬ 
count  of  the  blood  imbibed  by  the  quill;  which  putrify- 
ing,  communicates  an  offensive  smell  to  the  Feather,  and 
takes  some  time  to  evaporate;  for  which  reason  live  birds 
should  not  be  stripped  till  their  Feathers  are  ripe. 

Feathers  are  imported  in  this  country  from  Poland  and 
Germany.  They  are  divided  in  white,  half  grey,  and 
grey;  and  valued  accordingly.  The  best  Feathers  should 
be  white,  downy,  void  of  large  stems,  fresh  and  sweet. 
Care  should  be  taken,  that  no  sand  be  intermixed,  which 
is  frequently  practised  to  increase  the  weight. 

Ostrich  Feathers  are  dyed  and  dressed  by  the  feather- 
dressers,  to  serve  as  ornaments.  They  are  a  very  costly 
article,  brought  to  us  from  Africa,  and  particularly  the 
coast  of  Barbary.  See  Down. 


1S6 


FENNEL 

F.  Fenouil. 

G.  F each  el. 

D.  Venkel. 

I.  Finocchio. 

S.  Hitiojo. 

P.  Funcho . 


SEED. 

DA.  Fennikel . 

'  SW.  F'dnkol 
POL.  Kopr  fivlozvs&y. 
R.  IVoloskci  Ukrcp. 

L.  Foeniculum. 


There  are  two  very  different  sorts  of  anethum  foeni¬ 
culum,  or  Fennel  seed;  the  common  and  the  sweet. 

The  sweet  Fennel  is  annual,  a  native  of  the  warmer 
climates,  and  cultivated  in  our  gardens.  We  commonly 
received  a  supply  from  Germany,  France,  and  other  parts, 
superior  to  our  own  growth.  Common  Fennel  is  peren¬ 
nial,  a  native  of  the  southern  parts  of  Europe,  and  cul¬ 
tivated  in  our  gardens.  The  seeds  of  this  species  are 
warmer  and  more  pungent,  but  less  sweet,  and  of  a  less 
grateful  flavor  than  those  of  the  preceding. 

Fennel  seed  enters  into  many  officinal  preparations,  and 
is  used  in  the  kitchen,  as  well  as  for  confectionary.  Distil¬ 
led  waters,  oil,  and  spirituous  extracts,  are  also  made  of  it. 


FENUGREEK. 


F.  Fenu-grec. 

G.  Bockshornsamen ,  F oenum 
graecum . 

D.  Bokshoornzaad, 

I.  Fienogreco. 


S.  jHforvci,  Athol^ua. 

P.  A Ifor^ as,  Fenogrego . 
DA.  Fonugrrek . 

SW.  Fenitgrek. 

L .  Foenum  Gracum . 


This  is  a  medicinal  plant,  thus  called  because  anciently 
brought  from  Greece;  though  now  cultivated  in  several 
parts  of  Europe.  Its  stem  is  about  a  foot  high,  its  leaves 
small,  and  disposed  somewhat  like  those  of  trefoil  yield¬ 
ing  a  little  white  flower,  from  whence  arises  a  long  pointed 
pod,  not  . unlike  the  horn  of  a  bullock  in  shape;  the  grain 
or  seed  is  enclosed  in  this  pod,  which  bears  the  name  of 
the  plant,  is  smaller  than  mustard  seed,  very  hard  and  so¬ 
lid,  of  a  triangular  form,  and  a  strong  disagreeable  smell; 
being  of  a  yellow  gold  colour  when  new,  but  turning  rud¬ 
dy  or  brown  when  kept.  The  good  choice  of  it  consists, 
in  being  new,  plump,  and  of  a  high  gold  colour. 

This  seed  is  principally  cultivated  in  France,  and  ex¬ 
ported  from  thence  in  considerable  quantities. 

French  dyers  use  it  for  the  scarlet  dye;  and  physi¬ 
cians  order  it  in  decoctions  and  cataplasms;  given  tc. 


m 

eattle,  particularly  horses,  it  creates  an  appetite  and  fat¬ 
tens  them. 

'  FIGS. 


F.  Figues. 

G.  F eigen. 
D.  Vyeen. 
1.  Fkhi. 

S.  Higoe. 
P.  Figos . 


DA.  Figen . 

SW.  Fikon . 

POL.  Fiki. 

R.  IVinn  'ua  jagodi. 
L.  Ficiy  Car icte. 


The  ficus  carica  or  Fig  tree  has  an  upright  stem,  branch¬ 
ing  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  high,  and  garnished  with  large 
palmated  or  hand-shaped  leaves.  Of  this  there  are  a 
number  of  varieties*,  as  the  common  Fig,  a  large,  oblong, 
dark  purplish,  blue  fruit,  which  ripens  in  August;  the 
brown,  or  chesnut  Fig,  a  large  globular,  chesnut-coloured 
fruit,  ripening  in  July  and  August;  the  black,  the  green, 
and  the  brown  Ischia  Figs;  the  Malta  Fig;  the  round 
brown  Naples  Fig;  the  long  brown  Naples  Fig;  the  great 
blue  Fig;  the  black  Genoa  Fig. 

Dried  Figs  are  a  considerable  article  amongst  groceries, 
as  well  as  medicaments.  The  best  are  those  from  Tur¬ 
key;  the  Faro  or  Sicily  Figs,  are  smaller  and  worth  con¬ 
siderably  less.  Many  Figs  are  also  brought  from  the 
South  of  France,  where  they  prepare  them  in  the  follow¬ 
ing  manner.  The  fruit  is  first  dipped  in  scalding  hot  ley, 
made  of  the  ashes  of  the  Fig-tree,  and  then  dried  in  the 
sun.  Hence  these  Figs  stick  to  the  hands,  and  scour 
them  like  lixivial  salts;  and  for  the  same  reason,  they 
excite  to  stool,  without  griping.  They  are  moderately 
nutrimental,  grateful  to  the  stomach,  and  easier  to  digest, 
than  any  other  of  the  sweet  fruits. 


FLAX. 

F.  Lin . 

G.  Flacbs. 

D.  Vlasch. 

I.  Lino . 

S.  Lino . 

P.  Linho . 

The  Flax  plant  has  a  slender  hollow  stem,  usually  about 
two  feet  high.  Its  bark  consists  of  fibres,  much  like  those 
S 


DA.  Hor,  Liter r. 
SW.  Liny  Hor. 
POL.  ten. 

R.  Len ,  Lon . 

L.  Linum. 


of  hemp;  which  being  dressed  and  worked,  are  manufac¬ 
tured  into  linen. 

The  ground  for  sowing  Flax  seed  upon  ought  to  be 
rich,  neither  too  wet  nor  too  dry,  laid  flat,  and  reduced 
to  a  fine  garden  mould  by  much  harrowing,  and  all  stones 
and  sods  carried  off*. 

The  time  for  sowing  linseed  is  from  the  middle  of 
March  to  the  end  of  April.  Late  sown  linseed  may 
grow  long,  but  the  Flax  upon  the  stalk  will  be  thin  and 
poor. 

When  the  crop  grows  so  short  and  branchy  as  to  ap¬ 
pear  more  valuable  for  seed  than  Flax,  it  ought  not  to  be 
pulled  till  it  be  thoroughly  ripe;  but  if  it  grows  long  and 
not  branchy,  the  seed  should  be  disregarded,  and  all  the 
attention  given  to  the  Flax.  In  the  last  case  it  ought  to 
be  pulled  after  the  bloom  has  fallen,  when  the  stalk  be¬ 
gins  to  turn  yellow;  and  before  the  leaves  fall,  and  the 
balls  turn  hard  and  sharp  pointed. 

When  the  stalk  is  small,  and  carries  few  balls,  the  Flax 
is  fine;  but  the  stalk  of  coarse  Flax  is  gross,  rank,  branchy, 
and  carries  many  ballsw 

Few  persons  that  have  seen  puffed  Flax  are  ignorant 
of  the  method  of  laying  it  in  handsful  across  each  other; 
which  gives  the  Flax  sufficient  air,  and  keeps  the  hands¬ 
ful  separate  and  ready  for  the  rippler.  After  puffing  the 
operation  of  rippling  should  by  no  means  be  neglected, 
whether  the  Flax  be  regarded  more  than  the  seed,  or  the 
seed  more  than  the  Flax.  In  the  latter  case  it  is  a  mat¬ 
ter  in  course,  to  preserve  and  collect  the  seed ;  but  even 
in  the  former  case  it  is  necessary,  as  the  balls  if  put  in 
the  water  along  with  the  Flax,  breed  vermin  there,  and 
otherwise  spoil  the  water.  In  Lincolnshire  and  Ireland 
they  think  that  rippling  hurts  the  Flax,  and  therefore  in 
place  of  it  they  strike  the  balls  against  a  stone. 

The  Flax  being  rippled,  must  then  be  watered,  and  a 
canal  of  standing  soft  water,  deserves  the  preference  for 
this  operation.  The  water  should  be  exposed  to  the  sun, 
but  the  Flax  in  it  protected  from  its  rays  by  divots.  The 
Flax  is  sufficiently  watered  when  it  feels  soft  to  the  gripe, 
and  the  hazle  parts  easily  with  the  boon  or  show;  which 
last  is  then  become  brittle  and  looks  whitish.  When 
these  signs  are  found,  it  is  taken  out  of  the  water,  and 
spread  thinly,  upon  a  dry  ground  of  short  heath  or  short 
grass,  to  dry. 


139 


For  the  purport  of  separating  the  boon  or  core  from 
*he  Flax,  which  is  the  bark  of  the  plant,  the  stalks  in 
•small  parcels  are  broke  in  a  hand  machine,  called  the 
brake;  and  for  clearing  it  of  the  broken  boon  the  Flax 
is  held  over  the  stock,  and  struck  or  threshed  with  the 
scutcher.  These  methods  of  breaking  and  scutching  the 
Flax  being  slow  and  very  laborious,  a  water-mill  has 
been  invented  in  Scotland  which  makes  great  despatch, 
but  is  generally  complained  of,  as  wasteful. 

The  next  operation  that  Flax  undergoes  is  heckling, 
which  consists  in  striking  the  flax  upon  the  teeth  of  the 
heckle,  and  drawing  it  through  the  teeth. 

The  principal  sorts  of  Flax  imported  into  this  country 
are:  St.  Petersburg,  Narva,  Riga,  Reyal,  Pernau,  Lie- 
bau,  Memel,  Oberland,  and  Dutch  Flax. 

The  St.  Petersburg  and  Narva  Flax  are  nearly  of  the 
same  quality,  and  the  latter  hut  little  inferior  to  the  for¬ 
mer.  Both  sorts  come  to  us  in  bundles  of  twelve,  nine, 
and  six  heads. 

The  Riga  Flax  seems  to  deserve  the  preference  of  any 
imported  from  the  Baltic.  It  is  the  growth  of  the  pro¬ 
vinces  of  Marienburg,  Druania,  Thiesenhausen,  and  -Li¬ 
thuania.  The  best  Marienburg  is  called  simply  Marien¬ 
burg  (M),  or  Marienburg  clean;  the  second  quality  cut 
(GM);  and  the  third,  risten  dreyband  (RD);  of  the  three 
other  provinces,  the  first  quality  carries  the  name  of  ra- 
kitzer;  as  Druania  rakitzer  (DR),  Thiesenhausen  rakit¬ 
zer  :(TR),  and  Lithuania  rakitzer  (LR).  The  cut  Flax 
of  these  three  provinces  is  the  second  quality,  and  to  the 
third  quality  belong,  the  badstub,  and  -badstub  cut  (B  and 
BG);  the  paternoster  (PN);  and  fiafs  three  band  (HD). 
Badstub  and  paternoster  is  the  refuse  of  the  rakitz  Flax, 
and  the  three  band  again  the  refuse  of  the  former  sorts, 
and  consequently  very  ordinary. 

The  Reval  and  Pernau  Flax  consists  of  Marienburg, 
cut,  risten,  hafs  three  band,  and  three  band. 

The  Liebau  and  Memel  growths  are  distinguished  by 
the  denomination  of  four  and  three  brand.  These  two 
sorts,  as  well  as  the  Oberland  Flax,  coming  from  Konigs- 
berg,  Elbing,  &c.  are  little  esteemed  in  the  British  mar¬ 
kets. 

The  Flanders,  or  Dutch  Flax,  is  well  dressed,  and  of 
the  finest  quality:  whereof  the  fine  thread  gnd  lace  maqe 
in  those  countries,  are  the  strongest  evidence. 


140 


The  good  and  even  quality  of  all  Flax  coming  from  the 
Russian  ports,  proceeds  from  the  institution  of  public 
bracks;  that  is  to  say,  the  Flax  passes  the  examination  of 
sworn  inspectors,  who  do  not  suffer  it  to  be  shipped  if 
inferior  to  the  usual  quality  of  the  mark  which  it  is  to 
bear. 

Flax  is  much  cultivated  in  Egypt,  especially  the  island 
of  Delta,  and  near  Damietta.  A  considerable  quantity 
of  it  is  yearly  exported  to  Venice  and  Leghorn.  It  is 
soft  and  good,  but  not  better  than  the  European.  It  grows 
very  high  in  that  country,  and  stems  may  be  seen,  four 
feet  high,  and  as  thick  as  the  common  rush.  It  flowers 
in  winter.  The  cloth  they  make  of  it  is  coarse  and  thin, 
and  only  purchased  on  account  of  its  cheapness, 

FLAX-SEED;  see  Linseed. 

FLOUR. 

DA.  Met/. 

SW.Mjol. 

POL.  Maka, 

R.  Muka. 

Li  Farina, 

Meal  is  the  powder  of  various  sorts  of  grain;  or  pulse, 
ground:  and  Flour  the  meal  of  wheat  corn,  finely  ground, 
and  sifted  from  the  bran. 

Wheat  being  very  apt  to  get  heated  and  damaged  in  long 
voyages,  the  Americans,  to  prevent  this  inconveniency, 
and  to  diminish  the  expense  of  freight,  reduce  it  into 
Flour,  and  send  it  to  the  European  markets  made  up 
in  barrels;  and  this  made  a  very  important  branch  of 
commerce  between  them  and  Great  Britain,  during  the 
last  war. 

The  finest  Flour,  particularly  when  stale  or  ill  prepared, 
is  most  liable  to  be  destroyed  by  a  number  of  little  animals, 
which  are  so  small,  that  they  can  only  be  distinguished 
with  a  microscope.  When  they  once  have  taken  posses¬ 
sion  of  a  parcel  of  this  valuable  commodity,  it  is  impossible 
to  drive  them  out,  and  they  increase  so  fast,  that  the  only 


F.  Far  me, 
G  Mehl. 
D.  Meel. 

I.  Farina . 
S.  Harina. 
P.  Far  inha. 


141 


means  of  preventing  a  total  loss,  is  to  use  it  as  soon  as 
possible.  The  way  to  prevent  their  breeding  in  the  Flour, 
is  to  preserve  it  from  damp,  as  it  cvannot  be  kept  too 
dry. 

FOSSIL  BEZOAR, 

Is  a  kind  of  figured  stone  formed  like  the  animal  Be- 
zoar,  and  supposed  to  have  the  same  virtues.  It  is  of  a 
purple  colour,  the  size  of  a  walnut,  and  light.  When 
broken,  it  is  found  to  be  an  irony  crust,  containing  in 
its  hollow  a  fine  greenish  white  earth,  which  is  used,  and 
not  the  shells.  It  is  called  Sicilian  earth ,  because  the  Fossil 
Bezoar  is  chiefly  found  in  Sicily. 


FRANKFORT  BLACK. 


F.  Noir  d'  Allemagne . 

G.  Frankfurter  schwdrze, 
Kupferdruker  sch-xvdrze. 


I.  Nero  di  Germania. 
S.  Negro  di  Germania. 
P.  Negro  di  Germania . 


This  black  is  made  of  the  lees  of  wine,  burnt,  washed 
in  water,  and  ground  in  mills,  together  with  ivory  or 
peach  stones  burnt. 

It  is  usually  brought  from  Frankfort  on  the  Mayn, 
Mentz,  and  Strasburg;  either  in  lumps  or  powder.  That 
of  France,  on  account  of  the  difference  in  the  lees  of  win£, 
is  less  valued  than  that  of  Germany. 

This  black  makes  the  principal  ingredient  in  the  rolling- 
press  printers  ink. 


FRANKINCENSE,  incense. 


F.  Encensy  Encens  fin  ou  malcy 
0  lib  an. 

G.  Weihrauch . 

D.  Wierook- 

1.  Incenso ,  Olibano. 

S.  InciensOy  Incienso  macho , 
Olibano . 


P.  Incenso  y  Incenso  macho , 
Olibano. 

DA.  Virogy  Virak. 

SW  Veirauchy  Virack. 
POL.  Kadzidlo. 

R,  Ladon  prostoi. 

L.  Thus,  Qhbanum, 


Frankincense,  or  Olibanum,  is  a  gummy  resin,  the  pro¬ 
duct  of  the  iuniperus  lyciaj  consisting  of  about  equal  parts 


142 


of  a  gummy  and  resinous  substance;  the  first  soluble  in 
water,  and  the  other  in  rectified  spirit. 

It  is  brought  from  Turkey  and  the  East  Indies,  but  is 
principally  collected  in  both  the  Arabias,  whence  it  is 
brought  to  Jodda,  the  harbour  of  Mecca.  It  usually 
comes  to  us  in  drops  or  tears,  like  those  of  mastich,  but 
larger;  of  a  pale  yellowish,  and  sometimes  reddish  colour; 
a  moderately  warm  pungent  taste,  arid  a  strong,  not  very 
agreeable,  smell.  When  brought  to  us,  it  is  so  full  of 
small  stones,  that  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  weight 
will  not  yield  above  fifty  to  seventy  pounds  of  pure  Frank¬ 
incense. 

The  Arabians  hold  their  own  Incense  in  no  estimation, 
and  make  use  only  of  that  which  comes  from  India.  Pro¬ 
bably  the  appellation  of  Arabian  Incense,  among  the  An¬ 
cients,  proceeds  from  the  Arabians  trading  in  it,  and  con¬ 
veying  it  from  India  to  the  ports  of  Egypt  and  Syria. 

The  principal  staple  place  for  Frankincense  is  Mar¬ 
seilles,  from  whence  it  chiefly  goes  to  Russia,  where  it  is 
used  in  making  the  Russian  leather.  A  large  quantity  is 
likewise  burnt  by  the  Russians,  and  Roman  Catholics,  in 
their  churches 

This  article  differs  greatly  in  price  and  goodness.  The 
best  is  in  tears  of  a  fragrant  smell,  pellucid,  and  of  a  yel¬ 
lowish  white  colour,  brittle  and  easily  pulverized.  Of 
this  quality  however,  little  is  to  be  found  in  the  common 
Frankincense,  and  it  is  usually  selected  on  purpose  for  the 
apothecaries  shops. 

The  dealers  count  different  sorts  of  this  gum  resin:  viz. 
Olibanum  masculum,  or  the  best  Frankincense,  in  large, 
round,  palish-yellow  pieces;  Olibanum  mammosum,  in 
soft,  yellow,  and  rather  long  tears;  Olibanum  orobseum, 
in  small  round  grains;  Olibanum  manna  thuris,  or  the 
broken  dust;  and  the  Indian,  or  Moccha  Frankincense, 
which  is  the  most  impure  of  any. 


In  natural  history,  signifies  the  last  production  of  a  tree 
or  plant,  for  the  propagation  of  its  kind :  in  commerce 
Fruit  denotes  the  production  of  a  fruit  tree;  as  the  apple, 
pear,  plum,  peach,  apricot,  cherry,  grape,  orange,  lc- 


H3 


mon,  currant,  raisid,  fig,  almond,  olive,  and  others,  both 
foreign  and  domestic. 


FULLERS’  EARTH. 


P.  Greda  de  Pixoerio . 


F.  Terre  a  foulen. 

G.  JValkererde. 

D.  Volaarde . 

I.  Terra  da?  purgatori. 
S.  Tierra  de  b atari,. 


DA.  Valkejord . 

SW.  V alklera,  ValkjoreL 
R.  Scbijfernaja  glina, 

L.  Terra  fullonum. 


The  true  Fullers’  Earth  of  England  is  a  kind  of  clay, 
of  a  greyish  ash-coloured  brown,  in  all  degrees ;  from 
very  pale,  to  almost  black,  and  it  has  generally  something 
of  a  greenish  cast.  When  dry  it  feels  as  fat  and  slippery 
as  soap,  but  is  not  wholly  diffusible  in  water.  When 
mixed  with  this  fluid  it  falls  to  pieces,  -either  in  large  or 
smaller  masses,  so  as  to  assume  the  appearance  of  curds. 
In  the  fire  it  readily  melts  into  a  white  or  reddish  frothy 
flag;  which  in  consequence  of  its  internal  vacuities,  is 
then  of  a  larger  volume,  than  it  formerly  was.  In  the 
mass,  it  breaks  into  irregular  scaly  pieces. 

The  greatest  quantity,  and  the  finest  earth  of  this  kind 
in  the  world,  is  dug  in  the  pits  of  Wavedon,  near  Wo¬ 
burn,  in  Bedfordshire.  The  Hampshire  Fullers’  Earth, 
is  of  a  dusky  brown,  inclining  to  green,  with  veins  of  a 
faint  yellow. 

Every  fine  clay  that  does  not  communicate  a  colour,  is 
in  general  fit  for  the  business  of  fulling;  even  the  excre¬ 
ments  of  hogs,  mixed  with  human  urine,  are  used  for  this 
purpose,  in  various  woollen  manufactories. 

The  properties  required  in  good  Fullers’  Earth  are,  that 
it  shall  carry  off  the  oily  impurities  of  the  woollen  cloth, 
and  at  the  same  time  thicken  it,  by  causing  the  hairs  or 
fibres  to  curl  up.  The  best  is  composed  of  fine  siliceous 
earth  with  clay,  and  a  little  calcareous  earth. 

The  real  Fullers’  Earth  is  found  besides  England,  in 
Sweden,  Crim  Tartary,  and  Austrian  Flanders, 


144' 


FURS, 

F.  Fourrure . 

G.  Pelz^werky  Rauchnverk. 
D.  Bonty  Bont'-werk. 

I.  P elite ce . 

S.  Peleteria . 

P.  Pellet  erta. 


FURSKINS. 

DA.  Foerverk,  Pels  week. 

S  W .  Foderverk,  Pels<verk. 
POL.  Futroy  Futronjoizna , 
Kojmacizna. 

R.  Machkaja  ruchlad . 


Before  the  discovery  of  Canada,  the  forests  with  which 
it  was  overrun,  were  little  more  than  the  extensive  haunt 
of  wild  beasts,  which  had  multiplied  prodigiously.  The 
few  men  who  lived  in  those  deserts  having  neither  flocks 
of  tame  animals,  nor  any  husbandry,  fed  and  cloathed 
themselves  entirely  with  the  wild  beasts  they  destroyed. 
As  soon  as  luxury  had  led  us  to  make  use  of  their  skins, 
the  natives  waged  a  perpetual  war  against  them;  which 
was  the  more  aftive,  as  it  procured  them  plenty,  and  a 
tariety  of  gratifications,  which  they  were  unaccustomed 
to;  and  the  more  destructive,  as  they  had  adopted  the 
use  of  our  fire  arms.  This  caused  a  great  quantity  and 
prodigious  variety  of  Furs  to  he  brought  into  the  ports  of 
Europe.  We  shall  content  ourselves  with  giving  some  ac¬ 
count  of  those,  that  are  still  in  request. 

The  Otter  is  a  voracious  animal,  which  runs  or  swims 
along  the  banks  of  the  lakes  or  rivers,  commonly  lives 
upon  fish,  and  when  that  fails,  will  feed  upon  grass,  or 
the  rind  of  aquatic  plants.  He  is  found  in  all  those  coun¬ 
tries  which  abound  in  water  and  are  temperate,  but  is 
more  common  and  much  larger  in  the  northern  parts  of 
America,  and  his  hair  no  where  else  so  black  or  so  fine. 
He  much  resembles  the  beaver,  but  the  hair  of  the  for¬ 
mer  is  not  half  so  long  as  that  belonging  to  the  latter, 
nor  is  the  colour  exaClly  the  same;  for  the  hair  of  an 
Otter  under  the  neck,  stomach,  and  belly,  is  more  grey¬ 
ish,  than  that  of  the  beaver,  and  it  varies  in  many  other 
respeCts. 

The  Pole-cat  h  in  equal  estimation  with  the  otter,  among 
the  Canadian  huntsmen.  There  are  three  species  of  this 
animal;  the  first  is  the  common  Pole-cat;  the  second  is 
called  the  mink;  and  the  third  the  stinking  Pole-cat,  be¬ 
cause  his  urine,  which  he  voids  in  his  fright  when  pur- 


145 


sued,  is  so  offensive,  that  it  infers  the  air  at  a  great  dis¬ 
tance.  Their  hair  is  darker,  more  glossy  and  more  silky 
than  in  Europe.  The  stinking  Pole-cat,  also  called  skunk, 
has  a  long  and  shining  Fur,  of  a  dirty  white,  mixed  in 
some  places  with  black;  so  that  it  appears  to  be  shaded  in 
particular  parts  with  black,  without  being  either  spotted 
or  striped.  The  skin  of  the  mink  is  blacker  than  that  of 
an  otter,  or  almost  any  other  creature ;  “  as  black  as  3 
mink,”  being  a  proverbial  expression  in  America.  Ii 
is  not  however  so  valuable;  though  this  greatly  depends 
upon  the  season  in  which  it  is  taken.  Its  tail  is  entirely 
without  hair. 

Squirrels.  There  are  five  sorts  of  squirrels  in  North 
America;  the  red,  the  grey,  the  black,  the  variegated, 
and  the  flying.  The  two  former  are  exactly  the  same  as 
those  of  Europe;  the  black  are  somewhat  larger;  and  as 
to  the  rest,  differ  from  them  only  in  colour.  The  varie¬ 
gated  also  resemble  them  in  shape  and  figure,  and  are 
very  beautiful;  being  finely  striped  with  white  or  grey, 
and  sometimes  with  red  or  black.  The  American  flying 
Squirrel,  is  much  less  than  the  European,  being  not  above 
five  inches  long,  and  of  a  russet,  grey,  or  ash  colour  on 
the  back,  and  white  on  the  under  parts. 

Even  the  Rat  in  North  America  is  valuable  for  his  skin. 
There  are  two  sorts  especially,  whose  skin  is  an  articl^ 
of  trade.  The  one,  which  is  called  the  opossum,  is  twice 
as  large  as  an  European  Rat.  His  hair  is  commonly  of  a 
silver  grey,  sometimes  of  a  clear  white.  The  female  has 
a  bag  under  her  belly,  in  which,  when  pursued,  she  puts 
her  young  ones.  The  other,  which  is  called  the  musk 
Rat,  because  his  testicles  contain  musk,  has  all  the  cha¬ 
racteristic  qualities  of  the  beaver,  of  which  he  seems  to  be 
a  diminutive;  and  his  skin  is  employed  for  the  same  pur¬ 
poses. 

The  Ermine ,  which  is  about  the  size  of  a  squirrel,  but 
not  quite  so  long,  has  the  same  lively  eyes  and  keen  look; 
and  his  motions  are  so  quick,  that  the  eye  cannot  follow 
them.  The  tip  of  his  long  and  bushy  tail,  is  as  black  as 
jet.  His  hair  which  is  as  yellow  as  gold  in  summer,  turns 
as  white  as  snow  in  winter.  This  lively  and  light  animal, 
is  one  of  the  beauties  of  Canada;  but,  though  smaller  than 
the  sable,  is  not  so  common. 

T 


146 


The  Martin  >  is  only  to  be  met  with  in  cold  countries, 
in  the  centre  of  the  forests,  far  from  all  habitations.  It 
is  a  beast  of  prey,  and  lives  upon  birds.  Its  Fur  is  much 
esteemed,  though  far  inferior  to  that  species  which  is  dis¬ 
tinguished  by  the  name  of  the  sable.  The  whole  body  is 
covered  with  Fur  of  a  brownish  sallow  colour,  and  there 
are  some  in  the  more  northern  parts,  which  are  black. 
The  skins  of  the  latter  are  of  much  greater  value  than  the 
others,  and  the  finest  among  them  are  those,  whose  Fur 
reaches  along  the  back,  quite  to  the  tip  of  the  tail. 

The  animal  which  the  Ancients  called  lynx ,  known  in 
Siberia  by  the  name  of  the  ounce,  is  only  called  the  Wild¬ 
cat  in  Canada,  where  it  is  smaller  than  in  our  hemisphere. 
This  animal  lives  upon  what  game  he  can  catch;  his  flesh 
is  known  to  be  very  white  and  well  flavoured,  but  he  is 
hunted  chiefly  for  the  sake  of  his  skin;  the  hair  of  which 
is  very  long,  and  of  a  fine  light  grey,  but  less  esteemed 
than  that  of  the  fox. 

The  Fox  is  a  carnivorous  and  mischievous  animal,  a 
native  of  the  frozen  climates,  where  nature  affording  few 
vegetables,  seems  to  compel  all  animals  to  eat  one  another. 
Jn  warmer  climates,  he  has  lost  much  of  his  original  beauty, 
and  his  Fur  is  not  so  fine.  In  the  north,  it  has  remained 
long,  soft,  and  full,  sometimes  white,  sometimes  brown, 
and  often  red  or  sandy.  The  finest  of  any,  is  that  which 
is  black;  but  this  is  more  scarce  in  Canada  than  in  Mus¬ 
covy,  which  lies  further  north,  and  is  not  so  damp.  There 
is  a  kind  of  foxes  to  be  found  near  the  river  Mississippi, 
whose  Fur  being  of  a  fine  silver  grey,  is  extremely  beau¬ 
tiful. 

The  Bear ,  in  a  cold  and  severe  climate,  is  most  com¬ 
monly  black.  As  he  is  rather  shy  than  fierce,  instead  of 
a  cavern,  he  chuses  for  his  lurking  place,  the  hollow  rot¬ 
ten  trunk  of  an  old  tree.  There  he  fixes  himself  in  win¬ 
ter,  as  high  as  he  can  climb,  and  does  but  seldom  go 
abroad  in  quest  of  food.  He  is  forced  out  of  his  retreat, 
by  its  being  set  fire  to,  and  as  soon  as  he  attempts  to  come 
down,  he  falls  under  a  shower  of  arrows,  before  he  can 
reach  the  ground.  The  Indians  feed  upon  his  flesh,  rub 
themselves  with  his  grease,  and  clothe  themselves  with 
his  skin.  skins  make  a  Fur  in  great  esteem,  used 

in  housings,  on  coach  boxes,  &c.  Of  the  skins  of  Bears* 
cubs,  are  made  gloves,  muffs,  and  in  some  countries, 
cloths. 


147 


The  VFolf.  The  Wolves  of  North  America  are  much 
less,  than  those  met  with  in  other  parts  of  the  world. 
There  are  two  kinds,  one  of  a  sallow  colour,  the  other  of 
a  dun,  inclining  to  black. 

The  Beaver  is  a  harmless  animal,  and  one  which  the 
savages  hunt  after,  with  the  greatest  eagerness  and  cruelty. 
He  is  about  three  or  four  feet  long,  and  weighs  from  forty 
to  sixty  pounds.  His  head,  which  he  carries  downwards, 
is  like  that  of  a  rat,  and  his  back  raised  in  an  arch  above 
it,  like  that  of  a  mouse.  He  has  webs  at  his  hinder  feet* 
with  which  he  swims.  The  toes  of  his  fore  feet  are  sepa¬ 
rate,  and  answer  the  purpose  of  hands;  the  tail  which 
is  flat,  oval,  and  covered  with  scales,  he  uses  to  carry 
loads,  and  to  work  with;  he  has  four  sharp  incisors  or 
cutting  teeth,  which  serve  him  instead  of  carpenter’s  tools. 
It  is  the  common  want  of  subsistence  and  propagation,  that 
colle&s  the  Beavers  together  in  summer,  to  build  theis 
towns  against  winter,  and  this  is  the  time  for  attacking 
them.  The  Beaver  gradually  decreases  and  disappears  in 
America,  since  the  Europeans  have  been  in  quest  of  its 
skin.  The  skins  vary  with  the  climate  both  in  colour  and 
quality.  In  the  same  district  however,  where  the  colo^ 
nies  of  civilized  Beavers  are  found,  there  are  some  that 
are  wild  and  solitary,  called  Earth  Beavers,  many  of  which 
disclaim  all  communication  with  their  natural  element, 
and  live  entirely  on  land.  Their  coat  is  dirty,  and  the 
hair  on  their  backs  is  worn  off,  by  rubbing  against  the 
cave,  which  they  dig  for  their  habitation.  These  wild 
Beavers  have  not  such  sleek  hair  as  those  that  live  in  so¬ 
cieties;  their  Furs  are  answerable  to  their  manners.  Bea¬ 
vers  are  found  in  America  from  the  thirtieth  to  the  six¬ 
tieth  degree  of  north  latitude.  There  are  but  few  towards 
the  south;  but  they  increase  in  number,  and  grow  darker, 
as  we  advance  towards  the  north.  In  the  territory  of  the 
Illinois  they  are  yellow  and  straw  coloured;  higher  up 
in  the  country,  they  are  of  a  light  chesnut;  to  the  north 
of  Canada,  of  a  dark  chesnut,  and  some  are  found  that 
are  quite  black,  which  are  reckoned  the  finest.  Yet  itj 
this  climate,  the  coldest  that  is  inhabited  by  this  species, 
some  among  the  black  tribes  are  quite  white;  others  white, 
speckled  with  grey;  and  sometimes  w;tl0wtidy  spots  on 
the  rump.  The  value  that  is  set  upon  them,'  depends  upon 
the  colour  of  their  skins.  Some  of  them  are  so  little  in 


348 


esteem,  that  it  is  not  thought  worth  while  to  kill  them*, 
but  these  are  not  commonly  found.  Beaver  skins  are 
chiefly  divided  in  three  sorts;  the  new,  the  dry,  and  the 
fat.  The  new  Beaver,  also  called  the  white  or  Muscovy 
Beaver,  because  it  is  generally  exported  to  Russia,  is  that 
catched  by  the  Indians  in  North  America  in  their  winter 
hunting.  It  is  the  best  for  making  flne  Fur,  because  it 
has  lost  none  of  its  winter  hair  by  shedding.  The  dry 
Beaver,  sometimes  called  lean  Beaver,  comes  from  the 
summer  hunting,  which  is  the  time  when  these  animals 
lose  part  of  their  hair.  Though  this  sort  of  Beaver  be 
much  inferior  to  the  former,  it  may  also  be  employed  in 
Furs,  but  is  chiefly  used  in  the  manufacture  of  hats.  The 
fat  Beaver  is  that,  which  has  contracted  a  certain  gross 
and  oily  humour,  by  the  sweat  exhaling  from  the  body  of 
the  Indians,  who  wear  it  for  some  time.  Though  this 
sort  be  better  than  the  dry  Beaver,  yet  it  is  used  only  for 
making  hats. 

When  the  hair  has  been  cut  off  from  the  Beavers’  skins, 
to  be  used  in  the  manufacturing  of  hats,  those  skins  are 
still  employed  by  several  workmen;  viz.  by  the  trunk- 
makers  for  coverings;  by  the  shoemakers  to  put  into  slip¬ 
pers;  and  by  turners  to  make  sieves  for  sifting  grain  and 
seeds. 

Besides  these  smallerFurs,  North  America  supplies  us  with 
skins  of  the  deer,  the  moose-deer,  and  the  elk;  the  strong, 
soft,  and  warm  skins,  of  which  animals,  make  excellent 
garments,  which  are  very  light. 

The  Deer  of  North  America  is  higher  and  of  a  slim¬ 
mer  make  than  that  of  Europe.  Its  colour  is  of  a  deep 
fallow. 

The  Moose-Deer  is  nearly  about  the  size  of  the  elk,  and 
its  horns  almost  as  enormous  as  that  animal’s.  Its  tail  is 
not  above  an  inch  long,  and  itvhas  feet  and  legs  like  a 
camel.  The  hair  of  the  Moose  is  a  light  grey,  mixed  with 
a  blackish  red.  It  is  very  elastic,  for  though  it  be  beaten 
ever  so  long,  it  will  retain  its  original  size.  Its  hide  makes 
very  good  leather,  being  thick  and  strong,  yet  soft  and 
pliable. 

The  Elk  is  shaped  like  a  deer,  but  in  bulk  equal  to  a 
horse.  Its  hair,  the  colour  of  which  is  grey,  and  not  un¬ 
like  that  of  a  camel,  but  of  a  more  reddish  cast,  is  nearly 
three  inches  in  length,  and  as  coarse  as  that  of  a  horse. 
Its  skin  will  dress  as  well  as  that  of  a  buck. 


149 


The  Fur  trade  was  the  first  which  the  Europeans  carried 
on  in  Canada.  It  was  begun  by  the  French  colony  at 
Tadousac,  a  port  situated  thirty  leagues  below  Quebec. 
About  1640,  the  town  of  les  Trois  Rivieres,  at  the  dis¬ 
tance  of  twenty-five  leagues  above  the  capital,  became  a 
second  mart.  In  process  of  time,  all  the  Fur  trade  cen¬ 
tered  in  Montreal.  The  number  of  Indians  who  resorted 
to  that  place,  increased  as  the  name  of  the  French  spread 
further.  Whenever  they  returned  with  a  fresh  supply 
of  Furs,  they  always  brought  a  new  nation  along  witj} 
them.  Thus  a  kind  of  fair  was  opened,  to  which  the 
several  tribes  of  that  vast  continent  resorted.  The  English 
grew  jealous  of  this  branch  of  wealth,  and  the  colony  they 
had  founded  at  New-York,  soon  found  means  to  divert 
the  stream  of  this  great  circulation.  They  had  infinite 
advantages  to  give  them  the  preference  over  their  rivals 
the  French,  so  that  they  soon  engrossed  most  of  the  trade 
that  had  rendered  Montreal  so  famous. 

The  Hudson’s  Bay  is  now  the  most  considerable  mart 
for  the  Fur  trade.  In  1670,  the  Hudson’s  Bay  company 
received  a  grant  from  Charles  II.  to  carry  on  this  trade 
exclusively.  Throughout  the  whole  of  this  extensive 
coast  there  are  only  about  a  hundred  soldiers  or  factors, 
who  live  in  four  bad  forts,  of  which  York  Fort  is  the 
principal.  Their  business  is,  to  receive  the  Furs,  brought 
by  the  neighbouring  savages  in  exchange  for  merchandise. 
Though  these  skins  be  much  more  valuable,  than  those 
found  in  more  southern  countries,  yet  they  are  cheaper. 
The  savages  give  ten  beaver  skins  for  a  gun,  two  for  a 
pound  of  powder,  one  for  four  pounds  of  lead,  one  for  a 
hatchet*  one  for  six  knives,  two  for  a  pound  of  glass  beads, 
six  for  a  cloth  coat,  five  for  a  petticoat,  one  for  a  pound 
of  snuff,  &c.  As  the  beaver  is  the  common  measure  of 
exchange,  two  otter  skins  and  three  martins,  are  required 
instead  of  one  beaver. 


150 


FUSTICK. 


F.  Bois  jaune. 

G.  Gelbholz. 

D.  Geelhout ,  Stock<vischhout . 
I.  Legno  giallo. 

S.  Palo  amarillo. 


P.  Jataibcc. 
DA.  Guulbolt. 
SW.  G el b holts. 


POL.  F arbierskie  drzewko, 
R.  Shsltoe  dereixse. 


Fustick  is  a  yellow  wood,  that  grows  in  all  the  Charaibbee 
islands,  in  Brasil,  and  other  parts.  It  is  used  in  dying 
yellow.  It  makes  one  of  the  most  valuable  trees  of  the 
island  of  Jamaica;  the  excellence  of  its  timber  considered, 
as  well  as  its  use  in  dying.  Its  fruit,  in  size,  colour,  and 
shape,  resembles  the  white  mulberry;  it  is  in  perfection 
in  March  and  April,  The  leaves  of  this  shrub  bear  some 
resemblance  to  those  of  the  elm  tree,  but  are  something 
smaller  and  greener. 

Fustick  is  used  for  the  dying  of  gold  and  olive  colours, 
which  however  are  not  durable. 


GALANGAL. 


F.  Galanga . 

G.  Galgant . 
D.  Galinga. 
T.  Galanga , 
S.  Galanga . 
P.  Galanga . 


DA.  Galange . 

SW.  Galgarot. 

POL.  Galgan ,  Kalkav . 
R.  Kalgan. 

L.  Galanga . 


Galangal  is  the  name  of  two  roots,  a  greater  and  a  small¬ 
er,  of  which  the  smaller  is  by  far  most  esteemed. 

The  lesser  Galangal  is  a  small  and  short  root,  of  an 
irregular  figure,  and  of  the  thickness  of  a  man’s  little 
finger,  seldom  met  with  more  than  an  inch  or  two  long. 
It  should  be  chosen  full  and  plump,  of  a  bright  colour, 
very  firm  and  sound,  and  of  an  acrid  and  insupportable 
hot  taste. 

The  larger  Galangal  is  brought  to  us  in  pieces  of  two 
inches  or  more  in  length,  and  of  near  an  inch  in  thickness, 
and  has  a  much  less  acrid  and  pungent  taste,  than  the 
smaller  kind.  It  is  to  be  chosen  in  the  largest,  soundest 
and  heaviest  pieces. 

The  lesser  Galangal  is  esteemed  an  excellent  stomachic, 
cephalic,  cardiac,  and  uterine.  The  greater  Galangal 
possesses  the  same  virtues,  but  in  a  less  degree. 


GALLS,  GALL  NUTS. 


F.  Gaiks,  Noix  de  Galles. 

G.  Gallapfel. 

D.  Galnooten. 

I.  Galley  Galluzze. 

S.  j4 gal  las. 

P.  G albas y  Bugalhos. 


DA.  G  aid  abler . 

SW.  Gallapplen. 

POL.  Galas. 

R.  Tschernilnue  orescbki. 
L.  Galla. 


Gall  in  natural  history,  denotes  any  protuberance,  or 
tumour,  produced  by  the  pun&ure  of  inse&s,  on  plants 
and  trees  of  different  kinds.  These  Galls  are  of  various 


152 


forms  and  sizes,  and  no  less  different  with  regard  to  their 
internal  structure.  Some  of  them  are  as  hard  as  the  wood 
of  the  tree  they  grow  upon,  whilst  others  are  soft  and 
spongy;  the  first  being  termed  Gall  nuts,  and  the  latter 
berry  galls,  or  apple  galls. 

The  general  history  of  the  Gall  is  this.  An  insert  of 
the  fly-kind,  is  instru&ed  by  nature  to  take  care  for  the 
safety  of  her  young,  by  lodging  her  eggs  in  a  woody  sub¬ 
stance,  where  they  will  be  defended  from  all  injuries: 
she  for  this  purpose  wounds  the  leaves  or  tender  branches 
of  the  tree;  and  the  lacerated  vessels  discharging  their 
contents,  soon  form  tumours  about  the  holes  thus  made. 
The  external  coat  of  this  excrescence  is  dried  by  the  air, 
and  grows  into  a  figure  which  bears  some  resemblance  to 
the  bow  of  an  arch,  or  the  roundness  of  a  kernel.  This 
little  ball  receives  its  nutriment,  growth  and  vegetation, 
as  the  other  parts  of  the  tree;  and  is  what  we  call  the  Gall 
nut.  The  worm  hatched  under  this  vault  draws  its  sub¬ 
sistence  from  the  Gall  till  it  becomes  a  nymph;  from 
which  state  of  existence  it  changes  into  a  fly,  and  then  dis- 
engages  itself  from  its  confinement. 

Oak  Gallsy  put  in  very  small  quantity,  into  a  solution 
of  vitriol  in  water,  though  but  a  very  weak  one,  give  it 
a  purple  or  violet  colour:  which,  as  it  grows  stronger, 
becomes  black;  and  on  this  property  depends  the  art  of 
making  our  writing  ink,  as  also  the  art  of  dying,  dressing 
leather,  and  other  manufactures. 

The  best  oak  Galls  come  from  Aleppo:  these  are  not 
quite  round  and  smooth  like  the  other  sorts,  but  have 
several  tubercles  on  the  surface.  Galls  have  a  very  aus¬ 
tere,  styptic  taste,  without  any  smell :  they  are  very  strong 
astringents,  and  as  such  have  been  sometimes  made  use  of, 
both  internally  and  externally. 


GAMBOGE. 


F.  Gomme  gutte. 

G.  Gummigutt . 

D.  Gutte  Gom ,  Gutta  gamba  t 
Gitte  gom . 

I.  Gommagutta. 

S.  Gommagutay  Guta  gamba. 


P.  Gotna  rom,  Goma  gut  a, 
Gutta  gamba. 

POL.  Gummi  gotta. 

R.  Gummi  gut. 

L  Gummi  gut taey  Gutta  gam¬ 
ba  ,  Cambcgia. 


Gamboge  is  a  concreted  vegetable  juice,  partly  of  a 
gummy,  and  partly  of  a  resinous  nature;  obtained  from 


the  c&mbogia  gutta,  a  tree  which  is  a  native  of  India.  It 
is  chiefly  brought  to  us  in  large  cakes  or  rolls  from  Cam- 
baja,  in  the  East  Indies.  The  best  sort  is  of  a  deep  yel¬ 
low  or  orange  colour,  breaks  shining,  and  free  from  dross: 
it  has  no  smell,  and  very  little  taste,  unless  kept  in  the 
mouth  for  some  time,  when  it  impresses  a  slight  sense  of 
acrimony. 

As  a  pigment,  it  makes  a  beautiful  yellow  water  colour, 
and  is  chiefly  used  for  maps.  Dr.  Lewis  says,  that  it  makes 
a  beautiful  and  durable  citron  yellow  stain  upon  mar¬ 
ble,  whether  rubbed  in  substance  on  the  hot  stone,  or  ap¬ 
plied,  as  dragon’s  blood  sometimes  is,  in  form  of  a  spirit¬ 
uous  tincture.  When  it  is  applied  on  cold  marble,  the 
stone  is  afterwards  to  be  heated,  to  make  the  colour 
penetrate. 

As  a  medicine,  gamboge  evacuates  powerfully  both  up¬ 
wards  and  downwards. 


GENEVA,  gin. 

F.  Genevrs.  I  D.  Genewr . 

G.  Genever.  \ 

There  was  formerly  sold  in  the  apothecaries  shops  a 
distilled  spirituous  water  of  juniper;  but  the  vulgar  being 
fond  of  it  as  a  dram,  the  distillers  supplanted  the  apothe¬ 
caries,  and  sold  it  under  the  name  of  Geneva. 

The  common  kind  however,  is  not  made  from  juniper 
berries,  but  from  oil  of  turpentine.  Two  ounces  of  oil  of 
turpentine,  and  three  handsful  of  bay  salt,  are  mixed  with 
ten  gallons  of  ordinary  malt  spirits,  and  drawn  off  by  a 
gentle  fire.  To  make  the  best  kind,  the  distillers  take 
three  pounds  of  juniper  berries,  ten  gallons  of  proof  spirit, 
and  four  gallons  of  water,  and  draw  it  off  by  a  gentle 
fire. 

The  best  Geneva,  called  Hollands  Geneva,  is  imported 
from  Holland,  and  is  chiefly  manufactured  at  Schiedam,  a 
village  near  Rotterdam.  It  is  supposed  they  use  the  same 
ingredients  as  prescribed  in  the  last  mentioned  recipe ; 
only  instead  of  malt  spirits,  they  use  French  brandies. 

They  have  also  manufactories  of  Geneva,  at  Ostend, 
Antwerp,  and  other  parts  of  Flanders  and  Brabant;  but 

U 


154 


the  Geneva  of  these  countries  is  greatly  inferior  to  that 
coming  from  Rotterdam,  and  worth  nearly  one  third  le3s 
in  this  market.  -■ 


GENTIAN. 


F.  Genii ane . 

G  Euxian  Gentian. 
D  Gentiaan. 

I.  Gcnziana. 

S .  Jenciana , 

1  .  Gena  ana. 


DA.  Entian,  Sodrod. 
t>W.  Bagsota . 

POL.  Giryaska. 

R.  Endian, 

L.  Geniiana . 


The  gentiana  lutea,  or  cbmmon  Gentian  of  the  shops, 
is  a  plant  that  alters  most  places,  but  more  commonly 
foilnd  in  Burgundy,  the  Alps,  Pyreneans,  and  the  moun¬ 
tainous  distri&s  of  Germany;  and  the  roots,  the  only  part 
used  in  medicine,  are  generally  brought  to  England  from 
the  latter  country. 

They  are  of  a  yellowish  brown  colour,  and  a  very  bit¬ 
ter  taste,  sometimes  as  thick  as  the  arm,  but  more  com¬ 
monly  divided  into  branches,  no  bigger  than  the  thumb  of 
a  man.  Tney  should  be  chosen  dry,  new,  of  a  moderate 
thickness,  and  free  from  earth.  That  which  is  dried  by 
the  air,  ought  to  be  held  far  preferable  to  that  dried  in 
the  oven;  and  the  two  sorts  are  easily  distinguished  by  the 
colour;  the  former  being  of  a  golden  yellow  within,  and 
the  latter  somewhat  blackish. 

This  root  stands  at  the  head  of  the  stomachic  bitters. 
Infusions  of  Gentian,  flavored  with  orange  peel,  are  suffi¬ 
ciently  grateful. 

GINGER. 


F.  Gingembre. 

G  Ing<wery  Ingber. 

D.  Gemier. 

I,  Zenz.ro,  Zcnzcvcro, 
Zinzibo ,  Gengicil ?. 
S.  Jenjibre ,  Agengibre . 


P.  Gengibre. 

DA.  Invewer. 

SW.  lngcsara. 

POL.  I m bier . 

R.  Jubir. 

L.  Amotnum  Zingiber. 


155 


West  India  islands.  The  Indians  who  were  found  by 
the  Europeans  in  the  American  islands,  most  generally 
made  use  of  it ;  but  their  consumption  in  this,  as  in  every 
other  article,  was  so  small,  that  nature  afforded  them  a 
sufficient  quantity,  without  the  assistance  of  cultivation. 
The  usurpers  grew  passionately  fond  of  this  spice*,  they 
ate  it  in  ttie  morning  to  sharpen  their  appetite;  they  served 
it  up  at  table,  preserved  in  different  ways;  t  ey  used  it 
after  meals  to  facilitate  digestion,  and  at  sea  as  an  antidote 
against  the  scurvy.  The  Old  world  adopted  the  taste  of 
the  New,  and  this  lasted  till  the  price  of  pepper,  which 
had  for  a  long  while  been  extremely  high,  was  reduced. 
Ginger  then  fell  into  a  kind  of  contempt,  and  its  culture 
was  dropped  almost  every  where,  except  at  Jamaica  and 
Barbadoes. 

When  the  roots  of  the  Ginger  plant  are  jointed  and 
spread  in  the  ground,  they  put  out  many  green,  red-like 
stalks  in  the  spring,  which  arise  to  the  height  of  two  feet 
and  a  half,  with  narrow  leaves.  The  flower  stems  are 
naked,  ending  with  an  oblong  scaly  spike.  From  each 
of  these  scales  is  produced  a  single  blue  flower.  It  attains 
its  full  height,  and  flowers  about  August  or  September, 
and  fades  about  the  close  of  the  year.  When  the  stalk  is 
entirely  withered  the  roots  are  in  the  state  proper  for 
digging.  This  is  generally  performed  in  the  months  of 
January  and  February.  Alter  being  dug  they  are  picked, 
cleansed,  and  gradually  seethed  or  scalded  in  boiling 
water;  they  are  then  spread  out  and  exposed  every  day 
to  the  sun  till  sufficiently  dry,  when  they  are  packed  in 
bags  for  the  market:  this  is  called  black  Gihger.  The 
manner  of  scalding  the  roots  is  as  follows;  a  large  pot  or 
copper  is  fixed  in  the  field,  or  some  convenient  place, 
and  kept  full  of  boiling  water,  the  picked  Ginger,  being 
divided  in  small  parcels,  is  laid  in  baskets,  and  plunged 
alternately  in  the  water,  where  it  is  suffered  to  stay  for 
a  space  of  ten  or  fifteen  minutes;  it  is  then  spread  on 
a  platform  for  drying;  but  care  is  taken  during  the  pro¬ 
cess,  to  change  the  water  as  soon  as  it  becomes  much 
impregnated  with  the  juices  of  the  root. 

White  Ginger  differs  but  little  from  the  black  sort;  the 
difference  arising  wholly  from  the  methods  of  curing. 
The  white  Ginger  is  never  scalded,  but  instead  of  this 
easy  process,  the  roots  are  picked,  scraped  and  washed, 


156 


one  at  a  time,  and  then  dried;  all  which  requiring  much 
pains  and  time,  and  being  made  more  agreeable  to  the 
eye,  the  price  of  the  white  is  much  higher  at  market, 
though  not  superior  in  its  properties  to  the  black. 

When  the  root  is  intended  for  a  sugar  preserve  it  is 
dug  while  tender  and  full  of  juice;  the  stems  at  this  time 
rarely  exceed  five  or  six  inches  in  height;  the  root  is 
carefully  picked  and  washed,  and  afterwards  scalded  till 
sufficiently  tender:  it  is  then  put  in  cold  water,  and  peeled 
and  scraped  gradually.  This  operation  may  last  three  or 
four  days,  during  which  it  is  commonly  kept  in  water, 
and  the  water  frequently  shifted,  as  well  for  cleanliness, 
as  to  extract  more  of  the  native  acrimony.  After  this 
preparation  it  is  laid  in  unglazed  jars,  and  covered  with  a 
thin  syrup,  which  in  two  or  three  days  is  shifted,  and  a 
richer  put  on,  which  is  sometimes  again  removed  for  a 
third. 

In  the  year  1738  Jamaica  exported  20,933  bags  and 
817  casks  of  Ginger,  which  is  the  greatest  quantity  ever 
shipped  from  it  in  one  year.  At  present  the  export  is 
very  small,  the  consumption  of  this  article  having  very  ma¬ 
terially  decreased  in  Great  Britain  as  well  as  in  the  foreign 
markets,  to  which  it  used  to  be  re-exported. 


GINSENG. 


F.  Ginseng. 

G.  Kraft'ujur'z.el ,  Ginseng. 
D.  Ginseng ,  Ginsem. 

I.  Ginseng. 

S.  jfin-seng. 


P.  Ginsao . 

DA.  Ginseng. 

SVV.  Ginseng. 

L.  Ginseng ,  Panax. 


Ginseng  is  the  root  of  a  plant  growing  upon  the  confines 
of  Tartary  and  China,  near  the  great  wall;  it  is  also  found 
in  Virginia,  Pennsylvania,  Louisiana,  and  Canada.  It  is 
like  a  small  carrot,  but  not  so  taper  at  the  end;  sometimes 
single,  sometimes  divided  into  two  branches.  It  has  then 
some  resemblance  to  the  inferior  parts  of  man,  from  whence 
it  has  acquired  the  name  of  Ginseng  in  China,  and  that  of 
garentoguen  among  the  Iroquois.  The  taste  of  the  root 
is  bitterish. 

Its  stem,  which  is  renewed  every  year,  leaves  as  it  falls 
off,  an  impression  upon  the  neck  of  the  root;  so  that  the 


157 


number  of  these  impressions  indicate  the  age  of  the  plant  ", 
and  its  value  increases  in  proportion  to  the  age. 

The  Ginseng  root  is  generally  allowed  to  be  a  strength- 
ener  of  the  stomach,  and  a  purifier  of  the  blood.  Its 
transparency  is  given  to  it  nearly  by  the  same  process  which 
the  Orientalists  employ  for  the  salop.  This  prepared  Gin¬ 
seng  is  in  such  high  estimation  among  the  Chinese  that 
they  never  find  it  too  dear. 

The  government  sends  out  ten  thousand  Tartar  soldiers 
every  year  to  gather  this  plant ;  and  every  one  is  obliged 
to  bring  home  two  ounces  of  the  best  Ginseng  gratis,  and 
for  the  rest  they  are  paid  its  weight  in  silver. 


GLAUBER’S  SALT. 

L.  Sal  miralih  Glauberi. 

Is  a  neutral  salt,  which  will  be  produced  when  the  vi¬ 
triolic  acid  is  saturated  with  the  salt  of  soda.  It  dissolves 
easily  in  water;  and  shoots  into  long  and  beautiful  crystals, 
which  contain  a  large  quantity  of  water;  in  consequence 
of  which  they  undergo  the  aqueous  fusion,  when  exposed 
to  heat.  This  kind  of  salt  was  some  years  since  univer¬ 
sally  recommended  as  a  purgative,  and  from  its  manifold 
virtues  was  entitled  by  its  inventor  sal  mirabile;  but  of  late 
its  use  has  much  decreased  in  many  places. 

GLUE. 

F.  Colie  forte . 

G.  Leim. 

D.  Lym. 

I.  Collet. 

S.  Cola. 

P.  Colaf  Colla 3  Grude. 

Glue  is  a  tenacious  viscid  matter  which  serves  as  a  ce¬ 
ment  to  bind  or  connedl  things  together. 

The  common  or  strong  Glue  is  chiefly  used  by  carpen¬ 
ters,  joiners,  cabinet  makers,  &c.  It  is  made  of  skins  of 
animals:  as  oxen,  cows,  calves,  sheep.  &c.  and  the  older 


DA.  Lim,  Liim. 
SW.  Lim. 

POL.  Kley. 

R.  Kiel. 

L.  Colla . 


15S 


the  creature  is  the  better  is  the  Glue  made  of  its  hide. 
Indeed  whole  skins  are  rarely  used  for  this  purpose,  but 
only  the  shavings,  parings,  or  scraps  of  them;  or  the 
feet,  sinews,  &c.  That  made  of  whole  skins,  however, 
is  undoubtedly  the  best;  as  that  made  of  sinews  is  the 
very  worst. 

in  making  Glue  of  parings,  they  first  keep  them  two 
or  three. days  in  water:  then,  washing  the  n  well  out,  they 
boii  them. to  the  consistence  of  a  thick  jedy;  which  they 
pass  whi  e  hot  through  ozier  baskets,  to  separate  the  im¬ 
purities  from  it;  and  then  let  it  stand  some  time,  to  purify 
it  further.  When  all  the  filth  and  ordures  are  settled  to 
the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  they  melt  and  boil  it  a  second 
time.  They  next  pour  it  into  flat  frames,  or  moulds, 
whence  it  is  taken  out  pretty  hard  and  soiid,  and  cut  into 
square  pieces  or  cakes.  They  afterwards  dry  it  in  the 
wind,  in  a  sort  of  coarse  net,  and  at  last  string  it,  to  finish 
its  drying. 

Glue  is  considerably  improved  in  quality,  by  keeping  it 
after  it  is  made;  and  it  is  of  prime  quality  if  it  swells  con¬ 
siderably  without  melting,  when  steeped  for  three  or  four 
days,  and  then  resumes  its  former  dryness  when  taken  out 
of  the  water. 

Of  this  commodity  there  is  a  very  large  exportation 
from  England;  the  English  Glue  being  universally  allowed 
to  be  the  best  in  Europe;  partly  from  the  excellency  of 
the  materials,  and  partly  from  the  skill  of  the  manufac¬ 
turers.  Next  to  this  is  the  Flanders  Glue.  In  both  coun* 
tries  it  is  made  by  the  tanners.  In  France  it  is  a  separate 
trade,  and  the  Glue  generally  of  an  inferior  quality. 

GOAT’s  HAIR. 

F-  Poll  de  Che-vrt. 

G  Ziegenhaar. 

i  Pelo  di  Capra . 

In  Anatolia,  the  capital  of  which  is  Angora,  they  breed 
the  finest  goats  in  the  world;  and  their  hair,  which  is  of 
a  dazzling  white,  is  almost  as  fine  as  silk,  and  nine  inches 
in  length.  The  mohair  yarn  is  made  of  it,  and  it  is  worked 
into  very  fine  stuffs,  particularly  camblets. 


S.  Pe'cfe. 

P.  Pelo  de  Capra. 


X 


159 


This  hair  is  imported  into  England  from  Smyrna  and 
Aleppo. 

V  • 

GOAT’s  SKINS ;  see  Skins, 


GOLD. 


F  Or, 

G  Gold. 

I>  Goud. 

I.  Oro. 

S,  Oro. 

P.  Otro,  Ouro . 


DA.  Grid. 
£>W.  Quid. 
POL  Zloto, 
R.  Soloio. 

L.  Aurum. 


Gold  is  the  most  valuable,  perfect,  and  indestru&ibta 
of  all  metals  \  when  pure  it  is  of  a  bright  yellow  colour. 
Platina  excepted,  it  is  also  the  heaviest  of  all  known  bodies, 
its  gravity  being  to  that  of  water,  as  19,280  and  19,290 
to  one.  Gold  is  unalterable  by  air  or  water.  It  never 
contracts  rust  like  other  metals.  The  a&ion  of  the  fiercest 
furnace  fires  occasions  no  alteration  in  it.  Kunckel  kept 
gold  in  a  glass-house  furnace  for  a  month,  without  the  loss 
of  a  single  grain.  Its  ductility  can  be  brought  to  such  a 
degree,  that,  according  to  Cronstedt,  one  grain  of  it  may 
be  stretched  out,  so  as  to  cover  ninety- eight  Swedish  ells, 
equal  to  63.66  English  yards  of  silver  wire.  But  Gallerius 
asserts,  that  a  grain  of  Gold  may  be  stretched  in  such  a 
manner,  as  to  cover  five  hundred  ells  of  wire.  Its  mal¬ 
leability  is  not  inferior  to  its  ductility.  Magellan  tells  us, 
that  its  surface  may  be  extended  by  the  hammer,  159,092 
times. 

Europe  is  principally  supplied  with  Gold  from  Chili 
and  Peru  in  South  America.  A  smaller  quantity  is  like¬ 
wise  imported  from  China,  the  Island  of  Sumatra,  and 
the  coast  of  Africa.  The  principal  Gold  mines  of  Europe 
are  those  of  Hungary,  and  next  to  them  the  mines  of 
Saltzburg. 

The  value  of  Gold  to  that  of  Silver  varies  as  Gold  is 
more  or  less  plentiful.  It  was  anciently  as  twelve  to  one, 
and  in  the  times  of  Cxsar  as  seven  and  a  half  to  one,  on 
account  of  the  quantity  of  Gold  he  brought  to  Rome. 


160 


Giauber,  an  eminent  chemist,  says,  that  there  is  not' 
any  sand  or  stone,  but  Gold  may  be  procured  from,  lime¬ 
stone  only  excepted;  the  misfortune  is,  that  the  expense 
of  separating  it  much  surmounts  the  profits. 

Gold  is  chiefly  found  in  mines;  though  there  is  some 
also  found  in  the  sand  of  rivers,  which  is  in  form  of  a 
dust,  and  called  Gold  dust.  It  is  distinguished  by  the 
variously  coloured  substances  wherewith  it  is  mixed ;  but 
it  is  also  found  separate  from  any  matrix.  It  is  particularly 
dispersed  through  such  masses  of  sand  as  are  of  a  yellow¬ 
ish  red,  or  violet  colour;  and  in  this  state  it  is  so  univer¬ 
sally  diffused  through  every  kind  of  earth,  that  Bergman 
thinks  it  the  most  common  of  all  the  metals,  iron  alone 
excepted.  If  ope  hundred  pounds  of  sand  contain  twenty- 
four  grains  of  Gold,  the  separation  is  said  to  be  worth 
attending  to.  In  Africa,  five  pounds  of  sand  often  yield 
sixty-three  grains  of  Gold,  or  even  more;  and  the  heaviest 
sand,  which  is  often  black,  or  red,  contains  the  most. 
Gold  is  brought  down  with  most  of  the  large  rivers,  even 
those  which  do  not  take  their^  rise  in  mountains  where 
Gold  is  found. 

Gold  is  soluble  by  aqua  regia,  being  a  composition  of 
the  nitrous  and  marine  acids.  This  solution  is  corrosive. 
It  gives  a  violet  colour  to  the  fingers,  or  any  animal  mat¬ 
ter.  If  the  solution  is  evaporated  and  cooled,  yellow  trans¬ 
parent  crystals  will  be  formed;  but  if  the  evaporation  is 
carried  too  far,  the  acids  with  which  the  Gold  is  combined, 
may  be  driven  from  it,  by  heat  alone,  and  the  Gold  will 
be  left  in  the  state  of  a  yellow  powder,  called  calx  of  Gold. 
All  the  metallic  bodies  which  dissolve  in  aqua  regia,  pre¬ 
cipitate  Gold  from  it.  Mercury  and  copper  throw  down 
the  Gold  in  its  bright  metallic  form;  the  other  in  that  of 
calx  or  powder.  Vitriol  of  iron,  though  it  precipitates 
Gold,  yet  has  no  effeft  upon  any  other  metal,  hence  it 
affords  an  easy  method  of  separating  gold  from  all  other 
metals. 


GRAIN ;  see  Corn. 


161 


GRAINS  OF  PARADISE,  grains  of  guinea; 


]F.  Graines  de  Paradis ,  Mani- 
gueite ,  Maniquette  ;  Ma- 
laguette. 

G=  Paradieskornes V 
D.  Guinees  grew , 

I.  Melegbetta.. 

S.  Malagueta,  grana  del  par  also. 


P.  Mdlagueita  de  Guine ,  Grad 
do  paraizo . 

D  A .  P aradiskorn, 

SW.  P aradiskorn. 

R .  Raiskie,  ziarnka. 

L.  Amo'mum  grana  paradisi. 


Ginger,  cardamoms,  and  Grains  of  Paradise,  are  pro^ 
duced  only  by  different  species  of  the  same  genus  of 
plants. 

The  Grain  of  Paradise  species  is  a  native  of  the  East 
Indies,  but  grows  also  on  the  coast  of  Guinea.  The  fruit 
containing  the  grains  is  about  the  size  of  a  fig,  divided 
into  three  cells;  in  each  of  which  are  contained  two  roots 
of  small  seeds,  of  a  reddish  brown  colour  without,  and 
white  within;  like  cardamoms,  only  larger.  They  are 
somewhat  more  grateful  and  considerably  more  pungent 
than  cardamoms. 


GRANATES,  garnets; 


F.  Grenates. 

G.  Granaten . 

D.  Granaaten. 

\ .  Granati. 

S.  Granadas . 

P.  Granadas ,  Grannies, 


DA.  Gran  at  er . 

SW.  Granaier. 
POL.  Granatki . 

R.  Granatnoi-kamen, 
L.  Granati. 


The  Granate  is  a  genus  of  fossils,  ranked  among  the 
siliceous  earths;  but  according  to  Magellan,  analogous  to 
gems.  The  two  principal  species  are  the  coarse  grained 
and  the  crystallized  Garnet. 

The  coarse  grained  Garnet  is  a  heavy  hard  stone,  crys¬ 
tallizing  in  form  of  Polygonal  bails,  mostly  of  a  red  and 
reddish  brown  colour.  It  is  found  of  a  reddish  brown,  and 
whitish  or  pale  yellow,  in  different  parts  of  Sweden. 

X 


162 


The  crystallized  Garnet  is  reckoned  among  the  precious 
stones;  but  varying  in  colour,  and  the  form  of  its  crystals, 
more  than  any  of  them.  Sometimes  it  is  of  a  deep  and 
dark  red  colour;  sometimes  yellowish  and  purplish;  some¬ 
times  brown,  black,  or  opaque.  It  is  inferior  both  in 
lustre  and  hardness  to  the  other  gems.  When  pure  and 
free  from  blemishes,  it  is  little  interior  in  appearance  to 
the  oriental  ruby,  though  only  of  a  middling  degree  of 
hardness,  between  the  sapphire  and  common  crystal.  It 
is  found  of  various  sizes,  from  that  of  a  pin’s  head  to  an 
inch  in  diameter. 

The  most  esteemed  is  the  Syrian  Garnet,  which  is  of  a 
fine  red,  inclining  to  purple,  very  transparent,  but  less 
beautiful  than  the  oriental  amethyst. 

Sometimes  the  Garnets  have  a  yellow  colour,  in  which 
case  they  obtain  the  name  of  hyacinths.  Like  other  gems 
they  are  divided  into  oriental  and  occidental;  but  this  means 
in  fact  no  more,  than  more  or  less  valuable;  the  finest 
stones  being  always  called  oriental,  wherever  they  come 
from.  Some  very  fine  ones  are  found  in  Bohemia,  they 
are  also  met  with  in  Hungary,  at  Pyrna  in  Silesia,  S.  Sa- 
pho  in  the  Canton  of  Bern,  in  Spain,  and  in  Norway. 


GRANITE. 


P  Granites • 

DA.  Gr ant t steen. 

SW  Granit ,  Gras  ten. 
L.  Granit  a. 


F.  Granit. 

G.  Granit. 


D-  Granit  steen. 
I.  Granit o. 


S.  Granites . 

The  Granite  is  a  stone  of  great  hardness,  giving  fire 
with  steel,  not  fermenting  with  acids,  and  slowly  and  im¬ 
perfectly  calcinable  in  a  great  fire. 

There  are  three  species  of  Granite:  1.  The  hard  white 
Granite  with  black  spots,  commonly  called  Moor  stone; 
this  is  a  very  valuable  kind,  consisting  of  a  beautiful  con¬ 
geries  of  very  variously  constructed  coloured  particles.  It 
is  much  used  for  the  steps  of  public  buildings,  and  on 
other  occasions,  where  great  strength  and  hardness  is  re¬ 
quired,  2.  The  hard  red  Granite,  variegated  with  black 
and  white,  and  found  in  immense  quantities  in  Arabia, 


163 


and  particularly  Egypt,  along  the  coast  of  the  Red  sea, 
S  The  pale  whitisa  Granite,  variegated  with  black  and 
yellow. 


GREEN  VITRIOL;  see  Copperas . 


GUAJAC  WOOD;  see  Lignum  vita, 
GUINEA  PEPPER; 

Ls  Capsicum. 

This  genus  of  plants  has  various  species,  of  which  the 
capsicum  tetragonum,  commonly  called  bell  pepper ,  produ¬ 
ces  fruit  fit  for  pickling.  The  pods  are  from  an  inch  to  an 
inch  and  a  half,  and  two  inches  long,  very  large,  swelling, 
and  wrinkled.  They  must  be  gathered  before  they  ar¬ 
rive  at  their  full  size,  while  their  rind  is  tender.  To  get 
out  the  seeds  they  must  be  slit  down  on  one  side  after 
which  they  should  be  soaked  two  or  three  days  in  salt 
water,  then  taken  out,  drained,  boiling  vinegar  poured 
on  them,  and  closely  stopped  down  for  two  months. 
Then  to  make  them  green,  they  should  be  boiled  in  the 
vinegar.  They  are  the  whalesomest,  and  best  pickle  in 
the  world,  and  require  no  addition  of  any  spice. 

The  capsicum  fruteseens,  commonly  called  Barbary 
pepper,  is  used  for  making  cay  an  buttery  cayenne  pepper ,  or 
pepper  pots ,  chiefly  used  by  the  inhabitants  of  America, 
and  esteemed  by  them  as  the  best  spice.  The  following  is 
a  recipe  for  making  pepper  pot :  take  the  ripe  seeds  of 
this  sort  of  capsicum,  and  dry  them  well  in  the  sun,  then 
put  them  into  an  earthen  or  stone  pot,  mixing  flour  be¬ 
tween  every  stratum  of  pods,  and  put  them  into  an  oven 
after  the  baking  of  bread,  that  they  may  be  thoroughly 
dried;  after  which  they  must  be  well  cleansed  from  the 
flour,  and  reduced  to  a  fine  powder:  to  every  ounce  of 
this  add  a  pound  of  wheat  flour,  and  as  much  leaven  as  is 
sufficieut  for  the  quantity  intended.  After  this  has  been 
properly  mixed  and  wrought,  it  should  be  made  into  small 


164 


cakes,  and  baked,  then  cut  into  small  parts,  and  baked  again, 
that  they  may  be  as  hard  and  dry  as  biscuits,  which  being 
powdered  and  sifted,  is  to  be  kept  for  use.  This  spice  is 
prodigiously  hot  and  acrimonious,  setting  the  mouth  as 
it  were  on  fire. 


F.  Gomme . 

G.  Gummi. 

D.  Gam-,  Gamine . 
I.  Gamma. 

S.  Goma . 

P.  Gamma ,  Goma. 


GUM. 

)  ;  / 

DA.  Gummi . 
SW.  Gummi . 
POL.  Gummi 
R.  Gummi. 

L.  QiUmmi. 


Gum  is  a  concreted  vegetable  juice,  which  transudes 
through  the  bark  of  certain  trees,  and  hardens  upon  the 
surface.  The  chemists  allow  only  those*  to  be  properly 
gums  which  are  dissolvable  in  water;  those  which  dissolve 
only  in  spirits,  they  call  resins;  and  those  of  a  middle  na¬ 
ture,  Gum-resins. 

Gum  Ammoniac^  is  a  concrete  resinous  substance,  usu¬ 
ally  in  large  masses,  composed  of  little  lumps  or  tears  of  a 
milky  colour,  but  upon  being  exposed  to  the  air,  soon 
changing  of  a  yellow  hue. 

We  have  no  certain  account  of  the  plant  which  pro¬ 
duces  this  juice,  but  the  seeds  usually  found  among  the 
tears  resemble  those  of  the  umbelliferous  class.  It  has  been 
alleged,  that  it  is  an  exudation  of  a  species  of  the  ferula, 
growing  in  Nubia,  Abyssinia,  and  the  interior  parts  of 
Egypt :  another  species  of  which  produces  the  assafcetida. 
It  is  brought  to  Great  Britain  from  the  Red  sea,  by  some 
of  the  ships  belonging  to  the  East  India  company  trading 
to  those  parts. 

Gum  Ammoniac  has  a  nauseous  sweet  taste  followed  by 
a  bitter  one,  and  a  smell  somewhat  like  that  of  galbanum. 
It  is  in  some  measure  soluble  in  water  and  vinegar,  with 
which  it  assumes  the  appearance  of  milk;  but  the  resin¬ 
ous  part  amounting  to  about  one  half,  subsides  on  standing. 
In  medicine  it  is  used  as  a  deobstruent. 

Gum  Anime ,  is  a  kind  of  Gum  resin,  distinguished  by 
the  names  of  oriental  and  occidental. 


165 


The  oriental,  or  Ethiopean  Gum  Anime,  is  brought  to 
ias  in  large,  dry,  and  solid  masses  of  irregular  figure,  and 
very  uncertain  colour;  some  greenish,  some  reddish,  some 
brown,  and  some  of  the  colour  of  myrrh  ;  but  all  mode¬ 
rately  pellucid,  of  a  tolerably  compact  texture,  light  and 
easily  powdered,  of  a  fragrant  smell,  very  inflammable, 
and  of  a  resinous  and  somewhat  bitter  taste.  This  is  the 
true  Gum  Anime,  and  now  very  rare. 

The  occidental  Gum  Anime,  which  now  is  universally 
sold  instead  of  the  oriental  sort,  is  of  a  fin?  yellow  whi¬ 
tish,  or  red  colour,  between  frankincense  and  mastich;  and 
in  the  purest  pieces  transparent.  It  is  moderately  heavy, 
friable  and  somewhat  oleaginous  to  the  touch;  extremely 
fragrant,  especially  when  burnt,  and  of  resinous  acrid  and 
somewhat  bitterish  taste.  It  is  brought  to  us  from  many 
parts  of  America,  particularly  New  Spain  and  the  Brasils. 

The  occidental  Gum  exudes  between  the  principal 
roots  of  the  hymensea,  or  locust  tree,  and  makes  the  finest 
varnish  that  is  known,  superior  even  to  the  Chinese  lacca. 
It  is  likewise  used  as  an  article  of  the  materia  medica.  It 
is  not  certain,  whether  the  Ethiopian  Gum  Anime  comes 
from  the  same  tree. 

Giyn  Arabic ,  is  the  name  of  a  Gum  which  distils  from  a 
species  of  acacia,  called  mimosa  nilotica,  growing  in  Ara¬ 
bia  and  Egypt.  It  is  very  common  among  us,  but  little  is 
to  be  met  "with  genuine.  That  is  accounted  the  best  which 
is  in  smaller  pieces,  and  almost  of  a  white  colour. 

This  gum  is  gathered  in  vast  quantities  from  the  trees 
growing  in  Upper  Egypt,  and  in  Arabia  Petrsea,  near  the 
north  bay  of  the  Red  sea,  and  at  the  foot  of  mount  Si¬ 
nai,  whence  they  bring  the  Ginn  Thus  or  Frankincense ,  so 
called  from  Thur  or  Thor,  a  harbour  in  the  north  bay  of 
the  Red  sea,  near  mount  Sinai;  thereby  distinguishing  it 
from  the  Gum  Arabic  which  is  brought  from  Suez,  ano¬ 
ther  port  of  the  Red  sea,  not  far  from  Cairo.  These  two 
Gums  tho/ugh  coming  from  the  same  tree  are  different,  in 
so  far  as  the  Gum  Thus  is  more  pellucid,  white,  or  of  no 
colour  at  all;  the  Gum  Arabic  is  less  pellucid,  and  more  of 
a  brown  or  dirty  yellow  colour. 

Some  inferior  Gum  Arabic  is  also  brought  from  the  East 
Indies. 

As  an  example  of  the  nutritive  quality  of  Gum  Arabic 
the  following  instance  may  serve.  The  Abyssinian  cara- 


166 


vans  on  their  journey  to  Cairo,  in  which  they  travel  over 
terrible  deserts,  so  that  their  progress  is  as  uncertain,  and 
depends  as  much  on  the  weather  as  a  voyage  at  sea;  ha¬ 
ving  in  1750  consumed  their  provisions  when  they  had 
still  two  months  to  travel,  were  obliged  to  search  for  some- 
thingamong  their  merchandize,  wherewith  to  support  life 
in  their  distress.  In  this  extremity  they  had  recourse  to 
Gum  Arabic,  upon  which  above  one  thousand  persons 
lived  for  two  months,  and  the  caravan  arrived  safe  at 
Cairo  without  any  great  loss  of  people. 

Gum  Arabic  is  one  of  the  most  considerable  articles  of 
commerce  that  pass  through  Egypt.  Every  year  in.  the 
month  of  October  two  or  three  small  caravans  of  the 
Arabs,  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Par  and  mount  Sinai, 
arrive  with  about  70,000  pound  weight  of  the  Gum. 
Those  Arabs  are  very  much  in  the  way  of  debasing  their 
goods  with  an  intermixture  of  extraneous  matters.  A 
great  many  caravans  arrive  from  different  parts  of  Africa, 
in  the  months  of  June  and  July,  with  three  different  sorts 
of  this  same  Gum.  A  quantity  comes  also  from  Habbesch, 
by  the  way  of  Djidda  and  Suez,  which  though  inferior  in 
quality,  passes  all  into  Europe,  where  annually  500,000 
pounds  weight  of  this  article  are  imported. 

Gum  Benjamin  or  Benzoin ,  is  a  brittle,  brownish  gum- 
resin,  of  an  exceedingly  fragrant  smell;  it  is  obtained 
from  the  styrax  Benzoin,  a  tree  which  is  a  native  of  the 
East  Indies,  particularly  of  Siam  and  Sumatra.  At  the  age 
of  six  years,  or  when*  its  trunk  acquires  about  seven  or 
eight  inches  in  diameter,  it  is  deemed  sufficient  for  afford¬ 
ing  the  Benzoin.  The  bark  is  then  cut  through  longitu¬ 
dinally  or  somewhat  obliquely,  at  the  origin  of  the  prin¬ 
cipal  lower  branches,  from  which  the  drug  exudes  in  a 
liquid  state,  and  by  exposure  to  the  sun  and  air  soon  con¬ 
cretes;  when  it  is  scraped  off  from  the  bark  with  a  knife 
or  chissel.  The  quantity  of  Benzoin  which  one  tree  af¬ 
fords  never  exceeds  three  pounds,  nor  are  the  trees  found 
to  sustain  the  effects  of  these  annual  incisions  longer  than 
ten  or  twelve  years.  The  Benzoin  which  issues  first  from 
the  wounded  bark  is  the  purest;  being  soft,  extremely 
fragrant  and  very  white;  that  which  is  less  esteemed  is  of 
a  brownish  colour,  very  hard,  and  mixed  with  various  im¬ 
purities.  In  Arabia,  Persia,  and  other  parts  of  the  East, 
the  coarser  kinds  of  Benjamin  are  consumed  for  fumi- 


167 


gating  and  perfuming  the  temples,  and  for  destroying  in¬ 
sects. 

The  Benzoin  commonly  brought  to  us  is  in  large  brittle 
masses,  composed  partly  of  white,  partly  of  yellowish  or 
light  brown. 

This  resin  has  very  little  taste,  impressing  on  the  palate 
only  a  slight  sweetness;  its  smell  especially  when  rubbed 
or  heated,  is  extremely  fragrant  and  agreeable.  Its  princi¬ 
pal  use  is  in  perfumes,  and  as  a  cosmetic;  and  it  approach¬ 
es  much  in  virtue  and  fragrance  to  storax  and  balsam  of 
tolu. 

Gum  Copal ,  is  a  Gum  of  the  resinous  kind,  brought 
from  New  Spain,  being  the  concrete  juice  of  a  tree,  called 
rhus  copallinum,  which  grows  in  these  parts.  It  comes 
to  us  in  irregular  masses,  some  of  which  are  transparent 
and  of  different  shades  as  to  colour;  from  a  light  yellow  to 
a  deep  brown.  Some  pieces  are  whitish  and  semitranspa¬ 
rent.  To  the  smell  it  is  more  agreeable  than  frankincense, 
but  has  not  the  solubility  in  water  common  to  Gums,  so 
that  it  is  improperly  called  Gum.  It  chiefly  serves  for  ma¬ 
king  a  beautiful  transparent  varnish  when  dissolved  in 
linseed  oil,  and  the  solution  diluted  with  spirit  of  tur¬ 
pentine. 

Gum  elastic ;  see  Ifidia  rubber. 

Gum  Galbanum ,  is  a  Gum  issuing  from  the  stem  of  an 
umbelliferous  plant  growing  in  Persia  and  many  parts  of 
Africa. 

The  juice  as  brought  to  us  is  semipellucid,  soft,  and 
tenaceous;  of  a  strong,  and  to  some  unpleasant  smell; 
and  a  bitterish  warm  taste.  The  better  sort  is  in  pale  co¬ 
loured  masses,  which  on  being  opened,  appear  composed 
of  clear  white  tears. 

Galbanum  agrees  in  virtue  with  Gum  ammoniacum, 
but  is  generally  accounted  less  efficacious  in  asthmas,  and 
more  so  in  hysterical  complaints.  It  is  an  ingredient  in 
Several  officinal  compositions. 

Gum  G.imboge;  see  Gamboge. 

Gum  Guajacum ,  Pockwood  Gumy  improperly  called  a 
Gum,  is  a  solid,  but  very  friable  resin,  much  resembling 
common  resin,  except  that  it  is  of  a  dusky  greenish  hue, 
and  sometimes  of  a  reddish  colour.  It  is  very  acrid  and 
pungent  to  the  taste,  and  when  burnt  of  a  fragrant  smell. 
It  is  procured  from  the  Guajacum,  or  lignum  vitte  tree,  by 


168 


jagging  the  body  of  the  tree  in  May.  It  exudes  copiously 
from  the  wounds,  though  gradually;  and  when  a  quanti¬ 
ty  is  found  accumulated  upon  the  several  wounded  trees, 
hardened  by  exposure  to  the  air  and  sun,  it  is  gathered 
and  packed  up  for  exportation.  This  Gum  has  been  sus¬ 
pected  sometimes,  to  have  been  sophisticated  by  the  ne¬ 
groes,  with  the  Gum  of  the  manchineal  tree,  to  which  it 
bears  some  similitude;  but  it  is  easily  distinguished,  by  dis¬ 
solving  a  little  in  spirit-  of  wine,  or  rum.  The  true  Gum, 
imparts  a  whitish  or  milky  tinge,  but  the  manchineal  gives 
a  greenish  cast:  and  this  is  still  further  distinguishable,  by 
pouring  a  little  of  the  same  tincture  into  fair  water,  which 
takes  from  the  Guajacum,  almost  immediately,  the  com¬ 
plexion  of  milk. 

This  Gum  is  in  demand  for  its  virtues  in  venereal 
taints,  rheumatisms,  &c. 

Gum  lac ;  see  Lac. 

Gum  Mastich ;  see  Mastich. 

Gum  Myrrh;  see  Myrrh. 

Gum  Olihanum;  see  Frankincense, 

Gum  Opopanax ,  is  a  Gum  resin,  of  a  tolerably  firm  tex¬ 
ture,  usually  brought  to  us  in  granules  or  drops,  and 
sometimes  in  large  masses,  formed  by  a  number  of  these, 
connected  by  a  quantity  of  substance  of  the  same  kind; 
but  these  are  usually  loaded  with  extraneous  matter,  and 
greatly  inferior  to  the  pure  loose  kind.  The  drops  or 
granules  of  the  fine  Opopanax,  are  on  the  outside  of  a 
brownish  red  colour,  and  of  a  dusky  yellowish  or  whitish 
colour  within:  they  are  of  a  somewhat  unctuous  appear¬ 
ance,  smooth  on  the  surface,  and  are  to  be  chosen  in 
clear  pieces,  and  of  a  strong  smell  and  acrid  taste. 

This  Gum  is  obtained  from  the  pastanaca  Opopanax,  a 
plant  which  grows  spontaneously  in  the  warmer  countries, 
and  bears  the  cold  of  this.  It  is  obtained  by  means  of  in¬ 
cisions  made  at  the  bottom  of  the  stalk  of  the  plant,  from 
whence  the  juice  gradually  exudes;  and  by  undergoing 
spontaneous  concretion,  assumes  the  appearance  under 
which  we  have  it  imported  from  Turkey  and  the  East  In¬ 
dies.  Its  virtues  are  those  of  an  attenuating  and  aperient 
medicine. 

Gum  Sandarac ,  is  a  dry  and  hard  resin,  usually  met  with 
in  loose  granules,  of  the  bigness  of  a  pea,  a  horse  bean, 
or  larger;  of  a  pale,  whitish  yellow,  transparent,  and  of 


169 


a  resinous  smell;  brittle,  very  inflammable,  of  an  acrid 
and  aromatic  taste,  and  diffusing  a  very  pleasant  smell 
when  burning.  It  is  produced  from  a  species  of  tne  juni¬ 
per,  and  the  cedrus  baccifera.  It  flows  spontaneously 
from  these  trees  in  hot  countries;  but  the  natives  promote 
its  discharge  by  making  incisions  in  the  bark. 

What  is  obtained  from  the  oedar  is  more  fragrant, 
especially  when  burnt ;  but  it  is  seldom  to  be  met  with 
separate,  both  being  mixed  together  under  the  common 
name  of  Sandarac. 

Sandarac  is  used  in  medicine.  A  powder,  called  pounce 
is  also  made  of  it;  and  dissolved  in  oil  of  turpentine  or 
linseed,  or  in  spirit  of  wine,  it  is  used  as  a  varnish. 

Gum  Senegal ,  is  a  Gum  extremely  resembling  Gum  ara- 
big.  It  is  brought  to  us  from  Egypt,  and  from  the  coun¬ 
try  through  which  the  river  Senegal  runs,  in  loose  or  sin¬ 
gle  drops:  but  these  are  usually  much  larger  than  those  of 
the  Gum  arabic;  sometimes  it  is  of  the  bigness  of  an  egg, 
and  sometimes  much  larger:  the  surface  is  very  rough  and 
wrinkled,  and  appears  much  less  bright  than  the  inner 
substance,  where  the  masses  are  broken.  It  has  no  smell 
and  scarce  any  taste.  It  is  probably  produced  from  a  tree 
called  by  Dale,  mimosa  Senegal. 

The  virtues  of  it  are  the  same  with  the  Gum  arabic; 
but  it  is  rarely  used  in  medicine,  unless  mixed  with  the 
latter:  the  dyers  and  other  artificers  consume  the  great 
quantities  of  it  that  are  annually  imported  hither.  The 
negroes  dissolve  it  in  milk,  and  in  that  state  make  it  a  prin¬ 
cipal  ingredient  in  many  of  their  dishes,  and  often  feed  on 
it  thus  alone. 

Gum  Thus;  see  Gum  Arabic . 

Gum  Tragacanth.  The  Tragacanth  plant  grows  in*  the 
East  Indies;  it  has  a  thick  short  ligneous  stalk,  greatly 
branched  out  on  every  side.  The  young  branches  are 
woolly  and  closely  garnished  with  winged  leaves,  whose 
foot  stalks  end  in  acute  thorns.  The  roots  creep  over  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  and  when  wounded,  yield  a-  Gum, 
which  is  called  Tragacanth.  The  best  sort  ought  to  be 
clear  and  sweet,  the  inferior  sorts  have  a  reddish  cast. 

Gum  Tragacanth  possesses  all  the  virtues  of  Gum  ara¬ 
bic,  and  in  a  higher  degree. 


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171 


HAIR* 


Those  small  fine  threads  that  grow  out  of  the  skin  of 
human  beings,  and  most  four  legged  animals,  are  called 
Hair ;  but  upon  the  latter  they  frequently  bear  the  deno¬ 
mination  of  shag  and  wool. 

HUMAN  HAIR. 


F.  CbeveuX. 

G.  Haare,  Menschenhaar. 
D.  Hair. 

I.  Capelli  umani . 

S.  Gabellos . 

P.  Cabellos, 


DA.  Haar. 
SW.  Har. 
POL.  Wlosy. 
R,  JVolossu. 
L.  Capelli . 


Human  Hair  makes  a  considerable  article  of  commerce, 
the  goodness  of  which  consists  in  its  being  neither  too 
coarse,  nor  too  slender.  Flaxen  Hair  is  particularly  va¬ 
luable.  The  scarceness  of  white  Hair  has  put  the  dealers 
in  that  commodity  upon  a  method  of  reducing  other  co¬ 
lours  thereto;  which  is  done  by  spreading  the  Hair  to 
bleach  on  grass,  like  linen;  and  afterwards  washing  it 
out  in  lixivious  water;  which  ley,  with  the  force  of  the 
sun  and  air,  brings  the  Hair  to  so  perfect  a  whiteness, 
that  the  most  experienced  person  may  be  deceived  therein. 
There  is  also  a  method  of  dying  Hair  with  bismuth, 
which  renders  such  white  Hair,  as  borders  too  much  up¬ 
on  the  yellow,  of  a  bright  silver  colour. 

Hair  which  does  not  curl  or  buckle  naturally  is  made 
to  do  so;  by  first  boiling  and  then  baking  it. 

The  Hair  of  the  growth  of  the  northern  countries  is 
valued  much  beyond  that  of  the  more  southern  ones:  as 
Italy,  Spain,  and  the  South  of  France;  the  latter  being 
generally  of  a  darker  colour  than  the  former. 

Great  quantities  of  Hair  are  imported  in  Great  Britain 
from  France;  Spain,  and  Germany. 


172 


There  are  many  frauds  in  the  Hair-trade,  human  Hair 
being  frequently  adulterated  with  the  Hair  of  camels, 
goats,  and  horses. 

HAIR  OF  ANIMALS. 


F.  Poil. 

G.  Haare  •Von  Thieren. 

D.  Hair. 

1.  Pelo. 

S.  Pelo. 

The  Hair  of  several  animals  also  makes  an  article  of 
commerce  ;  as  horse,  cow  and  ox,  buffalo,  camel,  goats, 
elks,  deer,  beaver,  hare,  coney,  &c.  Hair  is  used  by  up¬ 
holsterers,.  rope-makers,  sadlers,  bricklayers,  plasterers, 
hatters,  &c.  The  Hair  of  cattle  left  to  putrify  on  corn- 
lands  proves  a  good  manure.  See  Furs;  Hides;  Skins; 
Goats  hair;  Mohair. 

Camel-Hair  comes  from  several  parts  of  Asia  and  Afri¬ 
ca,  and  is  fit  when  spun  for  the  making  of  stuffs,  or, 
mixed  with  other  Hair,  for  making  of  hats,  and  particu¬ 
larly  for  pencils  in  painting. 


P.  Pello . 
DA.  Haar. 
SW.  Har. 
R.  Scherst. 


HELLEBORE. 


F.  Hellebore. 

G.  Nieswurz . 
D .  Niesavortel. 
I.  Ellc  boro. 

S .  V edegambre . 
P.  Hellebore. 


DA.  Nyserod. 

SW.  Prustrot. 
POL.  Ciemierzyca. 
R.  'Tschemefiza . 

L.  Helleborus. 


There  are  two  sorts  of  Hellebore,  the  black  and  white. 
Black  Hellebore,  called  in  English  Christmas  rose,  has  a 
dark  coloured  root,  furnished  with  abundance  of  little 
fibres  5  its  stem  green,  its  leaves  dented,  and  its  flowers 
of  a  carnation  hue.  White  Hellebore,  called  in  English, 
neesewort,  has  a  whitish  root,  beset  with  fibres  of  the 
same  colour-,  its  leaves  being  broad,  at  first  green,  and  af¬ 
terwards  of  a  yellowish  red.  From  the  middle  of  the 
leaves  rises  a  stem,  two  or  three  feet  high,  which  separates 
into  branches  bearing  a  considerable  number  of  Small 
flowers  like  stars. 


173 


In  each  kind  the  roots  only  are  used,  which  are  to  be 
chosen  large  and  fair,  furnished  with  big  filaments:  those 
of  the  white,  tancoloured  without,  and  white  within;  and 
those  of  the  black,  blackish  without,  and  brownish  with¬ 
in;  dry,  clean,  and  of  a  sharp  disagreeable  taste. 

They  act  as  purgatives;  but  so  violently,  that  they  are 
now  only  retained  for  the  farcy  in  horses,  and  for  the  scab 
in  sheep:  but  the  chief  use  of  white  Hellebore  is  in  form 
of  a  sternuatory  powder. 


F.  Chan'vre. 

G.  Han/. 

D.  Hennipt  Kennip. 
I.  Canape. 

S.  Canamo. 

P.  Canhamo. 


DA.  Hamp. 

SW.  Hampa. 

POL.  Konop. 

R.  Konapli ,  Konop  el. 
L.  Cannabis . 


The  ‘cannabis  sativa,  or  Hemp  plant,  is  cultivated  on 
account  of  its  external  filaments,  which  constitute  the 
Hemp  Used  for  cordage,  canvass,  cloth,  &e.  and  the  seeds 
abound  with  oil. 

This  plant  is  annual;  it  rises  quick,  into  a  tall,  slender 
sort  of  shrub;  its  leaves  growing  by  fives  or  sixes  from  the 
same  pedicle,  are  a  little  jagged,  and  yield  a  strong  smell, 
which  affects  the  head. 

The  culture  and  management  of  Hemp  makes  a  consi¬ 
derable  article  in  agriculture,  requiring  divers  operations, 
as  pulling,  watering,  beating,  and  swingling.  It  is  sown 
in  May,  in  a  warm,  sandy,  rich  soil;  and  is  of  itself  suf¬ 
ficient  to  destroy  weeds  on  any  ground. 

The  first  season  for  pulling  Hemp  is  usually  about  the 
middle  of  August,  when  they  begin  to  pull  the  male  plants, 
called  fimble  Hemp.  But  the  safer  method  is  to  pull  it  a 
fortnight  or  three  weeks  later,  when  the  male  plants  have 
fully  shed  their  farina  or  dust,  without  which  the  seeds 
will  prove  only  empty  husks.  At  the  second  pulling,  a 
little  after  Michaelmas,  the  female  plants,  called  karle 
Hemp,  are  taken  out  of  the  ground.  This  karle  Hemp 
is  laid  in  the  sun  to  dry,  and  then  housed,  for  the  seed 
to  be  thrashed  out.  The  female  Hemp  alone  produces 
seed  to  perpetuate  the  kind. 


174 


The  operations  of  harling,  watering,  breaking,  swingling, 
and  heckling  Hemp,  are  very  much  like  those  practised  in 
the  dressing  of  flax. 

The  Hemp  imported  into  this  country  chiefly  comes 
from  Russia.  Amongst  it,  the  Riga  Hemp  deserves  the 
preference,  which  according  to  the  quality,  is  divided  in 
rhyne,  outshot,  pass,  and  cedilla  Hemp.  Next  follows 
the  importation  from  St.  Petersburg,  consisting  of  clean, 
outshot,  halfclean,  and  codiila.  There  is  also  an  inferior 
kind  of  Hemp  coming  from  Konigsberg,  and  divided  in 
rhyne  and  schoken  Hemp.  The  Italian,  known  in  this 
country  by  the  name  of  Bologna  Hemp,  is  of  very  prime 
quality,  but  comes  too  dear  for  the  consumption  of  the 
northern  parts  of  Europe. 

The  best  Hemp  should  be  clean,  soft,  tender,  of  long 
staple,  and  a  sound  palish  yellow  colour,  neither  green 
nor  red. 


HERRINGS. 


P.  Hare  tigs. 
G.  Heringef 
D.  Haringen 
I.  Artnghe. 
S.  Arenques . 


P.  Arenques. 
DA.  Si/A 
SW.  Sill. 
POL  Sledz.it. 
R.  Seldi. 


The  clupea  harengus,  or  common  Herring,  has  the 
upper  jaw  furnished  with  a  serrated  mystache,  and  it  is 
shorter  than  the  under  jaw;  the  branchiostege  membrane 
has  eight  rays;  a  scaly'serrated  line  runs  along  the  belly 
from  the  head  to  the  tail.  The  name  of  Herring  comes 
from  the  German  heer,  u  an  army,’*  to  express  their  num¬ 
bers. 

The  meat  of  the  Herring  is  every  where  in  great  esteem, 
being  fat,  soft,  and  delicate,  especially  if  it  is  dressed  as 
Soon  as  caught:  for  then  it  is  incomparably  better  than  on 
the  next  day. 

Herrings  are  found  from  the  highest  northern  latitudes 
yet  known,  as  low  as  the  northern  coasts  of  France.  They 
are  met  with  in  vast  shoals  on  the  coast  of  America  as  low 
as  Carolina.  In  Chesapeake  Bay  is  an  annual  inundation 
of  those  fish,  which  cover  the  shore  in  such  quantities  a? 


/ 


175 

to  become  a  nuisance.  We  find  them  again  in  the  seas 
of  Kamtschatka,  and  probably  they  reach  Japan.  The 
great  winter  rendezvous  of  the  Herring  is  within  the  arc¬ 
tic  circle:  there  they  continue  for  many  months,  in  order 
to  recruit  themselves  after  the  fatigue  of  spawning;  the 
seas  within  that  space  swarming  with  insert  food  in  a  far 
greater  degree,  than  those  of  our  warmer  latitudes.  This 
mighty  army  begins  to  put  itself  in  motion  in  Spring. 
They  begin  to  appear  off  the  Shetland  isles  in  April  and 
May;  these  are  only  the  forerunners  of  the  grand  shoal, 
which  comes  in  June:  and  their  appearance  is  marked  by 
certain  signs,  such  as  the  numbers  of  birds,  like  gannets^ 
and  others,  which  follow  to  prey  on  them :  but  when  the 
main  boc[y  approaches,  its  breadth  and  depth  is  such,  as 
to  alter  the  appearance  of  the  very  ocean.  It  is  divided 
into  distinct  columns  of  five  or  six  miles  in  length,  and 
three  or  four  in  breadth;  and  they  drive  the  water  before 
them  with  a  kind  of  rippling;  sometimes  they  sink  for 
the  space  of  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  and  then  rise  again  to 
the  surface;  and  in  fine  weather  reflect  a  variety  of  splen¬ 
did  colours,  like  a  field,  of  the  most  precious  gems. 

The  first  check  this  army  meets  in  its  march  southward 
is  from  the  Shetland  isles,  which  divide  it  into  two  parts; 
one  wing  takes  to  the  east,  the  other  to  the  western  shores, 
of  Great  Britain,  and  fill  every  bay  and  creek  with  their 
numbers;  the  former  proceeds  towards  Yarmouth,  the 
great  and  ancient  mart  of  Herrings:  they  then  pass. through 
the  British  Channel,  and  after  that  in  a  manner  disappear. 
Those  which  take  towards  the  west,  after  offering  them¬ 
selves  to  the  Hebrides,  where  the  great  stationary  fishery 
is,  proceed  to  the  north  of  Ireland,  where  they  meet  with 
a  second  interruption,  and  are  obliged  to  make  a  second 
division :  the  one  takes  to  the  western  side,  and  is  scarcely 
perceived,  being  soon  lost  in  the  immensity  of  the  At¬ 
lantic;  but  the  other,  that  passes  into  the  Irish  sea,  re¬ 
joices  and  feeds  the  inhabitants  of  most  of  the  coasts  that 
border  on  it.  These  brigades,  as  we  may  call  them  which 
are  thus  separated  from  the  greater  columns,  are  often 
capricious  in  their  motions,  and  do  not  shew  an  invariable 
attachment  to  their  haunts. 

This  instinct  of  migration  was  given  to  the  Herrings 
that  they  might  deposite  their  spawn  in  warmer  seas,  that 


176 


would  mature  and  vivify  it  more  assuredly  than  those  of 
the  frozen  zone.  It  is  not  from  a  defect  of  food  that  they 
set  themselves  in  motion,  for  they  come  to  us  full  of  fat, 
and  on  their  return  are  almost  universally  observed  to  be 
lean  and  miserable.  What  their  food  is  near  the  pole  we 
are  not  yet  informed ;  but  in  our  seas  they  feed  much  on 
the  oniscus  marinus,  a  crustaceous  insert;  and  sometimes 
on  their  own  fry. 

They  are  full  of  roe  in  the  end  of  June,  and  continue 
in  perfection  till  the  beginning  of  winter,  when  they  depo- 
site  their  spawn.  The  young  Herrings  begin  to  approach 
the  shores  in  July  and  August,  and  are  then  from  half  an 
inch  to  two  inches  long.  Though  we  have  no  particular 
authority  for  it,  yet,  as  very  few  young  herrings  are  found 
in  our  seas  during  winter,  it  seems  most  certain  that  they 
must  return  to  their  parental  haunts,  beneath  the  ice. 
Some  of  the  old  Herrings  continue  on  our  coast  the  whole 
year. 

The  Dutch  are  most  extravagantly  fond  of  this  fish 
when  it  is  pickled.  A  premium  is  given  to  the  first  buss 
that  arrives  in  Holland  with  a  cargo  of  Herrings.  There 
is  as  much  joy  among  the  inhabitants  on  its  arrival,  as 
the  Egyptians  shew,  on  the  first  overflowing  of  the  Nile. 
Flanders  had  the  honour  of  inventing  the  art  of  pickling 
Herrings.  One  William  Beauklen,  of  Biverlet,  near  Sluys, 
hit  on  this  useful  expedient*,  from  him  was  derived  the 
name  pickle.  Beauklen  died  in  1397.  The  Emperor 
Charles  V,  held  his  memory  in  such  veneration  for  the 
service  he  did  to  mankind,  as  to  do  his  tomb  the  honour 
of  a  visit. 

Anderson,  in  his  History  of  Commerce,  gives  to  the 
Scots  a  knowledge  of  great  antiquity  in  the  Herring  fishery. 
It  appears  that  the  Dutch,  as  early  as  the  year  836,  were 
in  the  habit  of  purchasing  salt  fish  from  the  natives;  but 
these  imposing  upon  the  strangers,  the  Dutch  learned  the 
art,  and  took  up  the  trade,  afterwards  of  such  immense 
emolument  to  them.  Numerous  have  been  the  attempts, 
at  differents  periods,  by  bounties,  to  secure  this  treasure 
to  ourselves,  but  without  much  success. 

This  fishery  is  so  valuable  to  the  Dutch,  that  according 
to  Sir  William  Monson,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  king 
James  I,  they  vended  annually, 


177 


'  Lasts,  worth  £.  ster. 

At  Konigsberg,  Elbing,  Stettin  and 

Dantzig,  between  30  and  ....  40,000  620,000 

In  Denmark,  Norway,  Sweden  and 


Livonia,  .  .  . .  10,000  160,000 

In  Russia, . . . .  .  1,500  27,000 

At  Stade,  Hamburg,  Bremen  and 

Embden, . 6,000  '  100,000 

In  Germany,  22,000  440,000 

In  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  ....  9,000  160,000 

At  Rouen, . . . .  .  500  10,000 


making  together  89,000  .  1,517,000 

at  twelve  barrels  the  last,  "containing  twelve  thousand  Her¬ 
rings;  independent  of  a  vast  quantity  consumed  in  Holland 
itself,  to  the  amount  of  several  hundred  thousand  pounds 
more. 

Herrings  are  cured  either  white  or  pickled;  or  they  are 
cured  red  or  smoked.  For  curing  the  white  or  pickled 
Herring,  one  of  the  ship’s  crew,  appointed  for  this  office, 
as  soon  as  the  fish  are  taken,  cuts  them  open;  taking  out 
the  guts,  and  every  thing  but  the  milts  and  FoeS:  then 
washing  them  in  fresh  water  they  are  left  for  the  space  of 
twelve  or  fifteen  hours  in  a  strong  brine,  made  of  fresh 
water  and  sea  salt.  When  taken  out  they  are  welt  drained, 
and  put  in  barrels;  taking  care  to  dispose  them  evenly  in 
layers,  pressing  them  well  down,  and  strewing  a  layer  of 
salt  both  at  top  and  bottom. 

In  the  curing  of  red  Herrings  they  lay  them  in  brine 
as  the  pickled  Herring;  only  they  let  them  lie  therein 
double  the  time,  because  they  are  to  take  all  their  salt 
here,  whereas  the  other  kind  takes  half  its  salt  in  the  bar¬ 
rel.  When  taken  out  of  the  brine  they  string  them  bv 
the  head  on  little  wooden  spits,  and  thus  hang  them  in  a 
kind  of  chimney,  made  for  the  purpose,  exposing  them 
to  the  smoke  of  brushwood,  until  sufficiently  smoked  and 
dried;  which  commonly  takes  twenty-foUr  hours. 

The  goodness  of  red  Herrings  consists  in  being  large, 
fresh,  fat,  oily,  soft,  and  pliable,  their  outside  of  a  yel¬ 
low  gold  colour,  their  roes  or  milts  within  them,  and  well 
salted,  smoked,  and  barrelled.  The  white  Herrings  cured 
by  the  Dutch  were,  till  lately,  in  the  greatest  repute.  The 
Z 


m 


goodness  of  this  commodity  consists  in  its  being  fat,  flesby, 
firm,  white,  salted  the  same  time  it  is  taken  with  good 
salt,  and  well  barrelled.  The  Irish  Herrings,  and  princi¬ 
pally  those  of  Dublin,  are  scarce  inferior  to  the  best  Her¬ 
rings  of  Rotterdam  or  Enchuysen.  The  Scotch  Herring, 
is  not  so  well  prepared,  gutted,  salted,  and  barrelled,  as 
the  Dutch,  and  yet  its  taste  is  excellent.  A  Considerable 
number  of  Herrings  are  also  fished  on  the  coasts  of  Eng¬ 
land  and  Wales,  particularly  off  Yarmouth,  and  the 
coast  of  Cardigan;  but  they  are  not  so  proper  for  export¬ 
ation  as  the  others;  the  fish  being  too  dry  and  fresh  for 
the  market. 


HIDES. 


F.  Peaux ,  Cuirs. 

G.  Haute. 

D.  Huiden. 

I.  Cud  a. 

S.  Polly  os,  Pieles. 


P.  Pelles. 

DA.  Huder ,  Huuder. 
SW.  Hudar « 

POL.  Skory. 

R.  Kosbi. 


Hides  are  the  skins  of  beasts:  but  the  denomination  is' 
particularly  applied  to  those  of  large  cattle,  as  bullocks, 
cows,  buffaloes,  horses,  &c.  See  Skins ,  also  Buenos  Ayres , 
and  Buff  Hides « 

Raw  Hides  are  still  a  considerable  object  in  the  Egyp¬ 
tian  trade:  about  80,000  Hides  of  buffaloes,  camels,  cows, 
and  oxen,  are  exported  yearly.  Nearly  10,000  go  to 
Marseilles,  and  a  still  greater  number  to  Italy.  'The  buf¬ 
falo  Hides  being  thicker  and  heavier  than  the  others,  are 
chiefly  transported  to  Syria.  As  the  pastures  of  Lower 
Egypt  are  excellent,  the  Hides  of  its  cattle,  in  consequence, 
of  their  being  so  well  fed,  are  of  the  very  best  quality. 

Great  numbers  of  buffaloes  are  also  in  North  America. 
They  are  larger  than  an  ox,  and  their  head  is  so  full  of 
hair,  that  it  falls  over  their  eyes,  and  gives  them  a  fright¬ 
ful  look.  There  is  a  bunch  on  their  back,  which  begins 
at  the  haunches,  and  increasing  gradually  to  the  shoulders* 
reaches  on  to  the  neck.  The  whole  body  is  covered  with 
long  hair,  or  rather  wool  of  a  dun  or  mouse  colour,  which 
is  exceedingly  valuable,  especially  that  on  the  fore  part  of 
the  body,  being  proper  for  the  manufacture  of  various 


179 

Articles.  The  Hide  makes  a  considerable  article  of  ex¬ 
ports  from  America. 

There  are  Hides  of  several  denominations,  according  to, 
their  state  and  quality. 

Raw  or  green  Hide,  is  that  which  has  not  undergone 
any  preparation,  being  in  the  same  condition  as  when 
taken  off  the  carcass.  There  are  also  Hides  dried  in  the 
hair. 

Salted  Hide,  is  a  green  Hide  seasoned  with  sea  salt  and 
alum,  or  salt  petre,  to  prevent  its  corruption.  Most  of 
the  Hides  imported  from  Holland  and  France  are  so  pre¬ 
pared. 

Tanned  Hides  are  further  prepared  by  the  tanner,  by 
paring  of  the  hair,  and  steeping  them  in  pits  of  lime  and 
tan. 

Curried  Hides,  are  those,  which  after  tanning  have  pas¬ 
sed  through  the  currier’s  hands,  and  have  thus  received 
their  last  preparation,  so  as  to  be  fit  for  use. 


HONEY. 


F.  Mid. 

G.  Ho  nig. 

D.  lionig,  Honing. 
I.  Melt. 

S.  Mid. 

P.  Mel. 


DA.  Honning . 
SW.  Honing . 
POL.  Mibd. 
R.  Med . 

L.  Md. 


j 


Honey  is  a  sweet  sort  of  juice,  sucked  from  vegetables 
by  the  bees,  and  reposited  in  their  combs. 

Every  swarm  of  bees  consists  of  three,  different  insects 5 
the  queens  or  females,  the  drones  or.  males,  and  the  fork¬ 
ing  bees.  The  latter  are  by  far  the  most  numerous;  they 
are  neither  male  nor  female,  and  it  is  their  business  to 
gather  the  Honey  and  wax. 

With  regard  to  the  Honey,  there  are  parts  in  flowers 
called  the  nectarium  full  of  a  sweet  fluid;  it  is  to  these 
the  bees  resort  to  gather  the  liquor,  which  afterwards  be¬ 
comes  Honey.  They  make  use  of  their  trunks  to  conduct 
the  fluid  to  their  mouths,  and  from  the  gullet  it  falls  into 
the  first  stomach,  which,  while  it  is  filled  with  Honey,  is  in 
shape  like  an  oblong  bladder.  When  a  bee  has  sufficiently 


180 


filled  its  first  stomach  it  returns  back  to  the  hive,  where 
it  throws  up  the  Honey  into  a  cell.  There  is  reason  to 
believe,  that  the  Honey  does  not  return  out  of  the  body 
unchanged,  because  the  first  stomach  is  capable  of  contrac* 
tion,  in  the  same  manner  as  that  pf  cumulating:  animals. 
Some  of  the  Honey-combs  are  always  left  open  for  com* 
rnon  use,  but  many  others  are  stopped  up,  till  there  is  a  ne¬ 
cessity  of  opening  them.  Each  of  these  are  covered  care¬ 
fully  with  wax,  so  close,  that  the  covers  seem  to  be  made 
at  the  same  time.  This  practice  tends  to  preserve  the 
Honey  in  the  same  degree  of  fluidity,  as  they  design  it 
should  have. 

Ill  the  frost  of  winter  the  bees  are  benumbed  and  lay  in 
heaps,  as  close  to  each  other  as  possible.  But  as  soon  as; 
it  thaws,  and  especially  when  the  sun  shines,  they  are 
roused  out  of  their  lethargy.  However,  with  the  return 
of  their  activity,  they  are  also  under  necessity  of  returning 
to  take  nourishment.  Hence  the  milder  the  v/inter  is,  the 
more  Honey  they  consume,  and  they  are  sometimes  in 
danger  of  a  famine.  A  very  severe  winter,  and  one  that 
is  too  mild,  are  therefore  equally  dangerous. 

In  France,  a  good  swarm  of  bees,  in  two  years,  will 
yield  near  thirty  pounds  of  Honey ;  and  they  are  still  more 
profitable  in  countries  that  are  covered  with  flowers  the 
greatest  part  of  the  year. 

There  are  two  sorts  of  Honey,  the  white  and  the  yellow. 
The  white  or  virgin  Honey  trickles  out  spontaneously  from 
the  comb.  These  they  break  soon  after  they  are  made, 
and  lay  them  upon  hurdles  or  mats  of  osier,  or  on  linen 
cloth  fastened  at  the  four  corners  to  as  many  posts,  and 
then  an  excellent  white  Honey  will  fall  from  the  combs, 
and  grow  hard  in  a  short  time.  Afterwards  they  put  it 
into  glazed  earthen  pots.  Some  press  this  Honey  out, 
but  then  it  is  not  so  agreeable,  for  it  will  taste  of  the 
wax.  The  best  sort  of  French  virgin  Honey  is  that  of 
Languedoc,  called  Honey  of  Narbonne.  It  should  be 
new,  thick,  granulated,  of  a  clear  transparent  white 
colour,  of  a  soft  and  somewhat  aromatic  smell,  and 
of  a  sweet  and  lively  taste.  If  it  is  very  pure  it  is  almost 
as  hard  as  sug^rcandyj  and  what  renders  it  so  superior, 
are  the  many  aromatic  flowers  which  grow  in  those  parts, 
and  from  which  the  bees  gather  their  Honey.  It  is  always 
observable,  that  the  Honey  made  in  mountainous  coun- 


181 


tries  is  more  highly  flavoured  than  that  of  low  grounds. 
The  Honey  made  in  the  spring  is  more  esteemed  than 
that  gathered  in  the  summer;  that  of  the  summer  more 
than  that  of  the  autumn.  There  is  also  a  preference  given 
to  that  of  young  swarms. 

Yellow  Honey  is  obtained  by  pressure  from  all  sorts  of 
Honey-combs,  old  as  well  as  new,  and  even  of  those  from 
whence  the  virgin  Honey  has  been  extracted.  They  break 
the  combs,  and  heat  them  with  a  little  water  in  basons,  or 
pots,  keeping  them  continually  stirring;  then  they  put 
them  into  bags  of  thin  linen  cloth,  and  these  they  put  in  a 
press,  to  squeeze  out  the  Honey.  The  wax  stays  behind 
in  the  bag,  though  always  some  small  particles  of  it  pass 
through  with  the  Honey. 

Honey  is  the  production  of  most  countries;  yet  more 
abundant  in  the  island  of  Candia,  and  in  the  greater  part 
of  the  islands  of  tlie  Archipelago,  than  any  where  else. 
The  Sicilian  Honey  seems  to  be  particularly  high  flavour¬ 
ed,  and  in  some  parts  of  the  island,  even  to  surpass  that  of 
Minorca :  which  no  doubt  is  owing  to  the  quantity  of  aro¬ 
matic  plants,  with  which  that  country  is  overspread.  This 
Honey  is  gathered  three  times  in  the  year;  in  July,  August 
and  October.  It  is  found  by  the  peasants  in  the  hollows 
of  trees  and  rocks.  The  country  of  the  lesser  Hybla  is 
still  as  formerly,  the  part  of  the  island  that  is  most  cele¬ 
brated  for  this  article.  Considerable  quantities  of  Honey 
are  produced  by  the  wild  bees  in  the  woods  of  North 
America. 

The  bee  is  an  insect,  supposed  to  have  been  carried 
from  the  Old  to  the  New  World.  The  Indians  in  North 
America  call  it  the  English  fly,  and  it  is  only  found  near 
the  coasts.  Their  numbers  are  continually  increasing  in 
those  climates,  and  their  honey  and  wax  become  daily  a 
more  considerable  branch  of  trade. 

To  judge  from  Niebuhr’s  travels,  great  attention  is  paid 
in  Egypt  to  the  rearing  of  bees.  Below  Mansura  he  met 
on  the  Nile  twenty  boats  laden  with  beehives,  which  they 
were  bringing  up  to  make  Honey  on  the  banks  of  the  river. 
In  each  boat  were  two  hundred  hives,  four  thousand  in 
all. 

The  Ancients  made  much  more  use  of  Honey  than  we 
do  at  present,  because  sugar  was  not  then  known;  but  in 
some  cases  it  is  still  preferred  in  medicine. 


182 


HOPS. 


F.  Houblon . 


DA.  Humle,  Humble, 
SW.  i&Wa. 

POL.  Chmiel. 

R.  CbtneL 


G.  Hopfen. 
T>.  Hoppe . 


1.  Luppoliy  Bruscandoli. 
S.  Obion . 

P.  Luparoi  Lupulo . 


L.  Humulus  hup  ulus . 


Hops  are  a  plant  of  the  reptile  kind,  whose  flowers  are 
a  principal  ingredient  in  malf  liquors.  They  are  of  a  green¬ 
ish  yellow,  resembling  the  flowers  of  the  female  elm,  and 
grow  in  a  kind  of  bunch;  they  contain  a  blackish  bitter 
grain,  which  is  the  seed  of  the  Hop. 

Neither  the  male,  nor  female  flower  of  the  hop  plant, 
has  any  corolla ;  the  cup  of  the  former  is  composed  of 
five  leaves*  that  of  the  latter,  of  only  a  single  leaf,  very 
large  and  of  an  oval  figure. 

They  reckon  four  kinds  of  Hops:  1.  The  wild  garlic 
Hop;  2.  The  long  and  square  Hop;  3.  The  long  white; 
and  4.  The  oval  Hop.  The  first  of  these  is  not  worth 
Cultivating.  The  second  is  a  good  Hop,  but  looking  ge¬ 
nerally  red  towards  the  stalk,  it  will  not  fetch  so  good  a 
price.  The  long  white  Hop  is  the  finest  and  most  pro¬ 
ductive  of  all,  and  will  grow  very  well  together  with  the 
oval  Hop. 

Hops  delight  in  a  deep,  rich,  light  ground.  Some  plant 
them  in  March  and  April,  but  the  month  of  October 
seems  preferable,  because  they  will  then  be  strong  and  vi¬ 
gorous  against  summer.  Plants  about  eight  or  ten  inches 
long,  with  three  or  four  joints  or  buds  each,  should  be 
chosen.  The  land  must  be  dug  or  ploughed  well,  and  laid 
very  even.  A  thousand  hills  may  be  made  in  an  acre  of 
ground,  and  six  or  seven  plants  set  on  every  hill.  If 
planted  in  O&ober  the  plants  may  be  covered  over  an 
inch  deep,  but  in  spring  they  must  not  be  buried. 

Every  winter  or  spring  the  Hops  ought  to  be  dressed, 
which  consists  in  pulling  down  the  hills  and  cutting  away 
all  the  new  and  superfluous  roots. 

The  time  for  poling  the  Hops  is  when  they  appear 
above  ground;  and  to  receive  more  of  the  sun’s  rays  they 


183 


ought  to  lean  towards  the  south.  When  the  Hops  have 
got  two  or  three  feet  above  the  ground,  the  next  business, 
is  to  tie  them  to  the  proper  poles:  two  or  three  strings 
being  sufficient  for  a  pole. 

Hops  blow  in  the  latter  end  of  July;  in  the  beginning 
of  August  they  bell,  and  they  are  sometimes  ripe  at  the 
beginning  of  September,  sometimes  later.  When  they 
begin  to  change  colour  are  easily  pulled  to  pieces,  and 
their  seeds  look  brown  within  them,  they  are  ripe ;  and 
they  are  then  to  be  gathered  as  quick  as  possible,  for  the 
least  blast  of  wind  will  hurt  them  at  this  time. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  dry  the  Hops  as  fast  as  they  are 
picked,  for  in  lying  undried  they  are  apt  to  heat  and 
change  colour.  The  drying  of  the  Hops  is  the  most  ma¬ 
terial  part  of  their  manufacture;  for  if  ill  dried  they  lose 
their  appearance  and  agreeable  flavour.  It  is  performed  in 
a  kiln,  or  if  the  quantity  is  but  small,  they  will  dry  better 
by  being  laid  thin  upon  a  floor  and  turning  them  often. 

Hops  are  packed  either  in  bags  or  pockets;  the  latter 
are  always  higher  in  price  than  the  former,  partly  on  ac¬ 
count  of  the  better  Hops  being  generally  packed  in  poc¬ 
kets,  partly  on  account  of  the  real  tare  or  weight  of  the 
linen,  which  in  bags  of  two  and  a  half  cwt.  weighs  twenty- 
five,  and  in  pockets  of  one  and  a  half  cwt.  five  pounds, 
whereas  in  trade  there  is  no  allowance  made  for  tare, 


F,  <Ja  iap . 

G .  Jalap  zvurzeh 
D.  Jalappe. 

F.  Sciarappa . 

S.  Jalapti. 

P.  J alappa . 


DA.  Jalaprod . 

SW.  Jalaprot ,  Purggcrrot , 
POL.  Jalapa. 

R.  Ja'ap. 

L.  J  alappa. 


Jalap  is  the  root  of  the  convolvulus  jalappa.  It  derives  its 
name  from  Xalapa,  a  town  of  Mexico,  in  the  environs  of 
which  it  grows  plentifully.  It  is  also  found  among  the 
sands  of  Vera-Crux.  This  plant  resembles  in  appearance 
to  the  convolvulus  of  our  hedges.  Its  stem  is  climbing, 
angular,  and  covered  with  a  slight  dofan.  Its  leaves  al¬ 
ternately  disposed,  are  rather  large,  sometimes  entire  and 
cordiform,  sometimes  divided  into  several  lobes,  more  or 
less  distindh  The  flower  is  campaniform,  whitish  on  the 
outside,  and  of  a  dark  purple  within.  Its  root  which  is  the 
only  part  in  use,  is  tuberose,  large,  lengthened  out  into 
the  form  of  a  French  turnip,  white  on  the  inside,  and 
full  of  a  milky  juice.  The  weight  of  the  roots  is  from 
twelve  to  twenty  pounds.  They  are  cut  into  slices  in  or¬ 
der  to  dry  them.  They  then  acquire  a  brown  colour  and 
a  resinous  appearance.  Their  taste  is  rather  acrid  and  ex¬ 
cites  a  nausea.  ' 

The  best  Jalap  is  close,  hard,  weighty,  not  easily  bro¬ 
ken,  inflammable,  brown,  and  abounding  mostly  with 
black  circular  strise.  Slices  of  bryony  root  are  said  to  be 
sometimes  mixed  with  those  of  Jalap,  but  may  easily  be 
distinguished,  by  their  whiter  colour,  and  less  compadt 
texture. 

Jalap  is  an  active  and  violent  purgative,  and  is  given 
only  in  small  doses. 

There  are  seven  thousand  five  hundred  quintals  of 
Jalap  consumed  annually  in  Europe,  which  cost  £.  45, 000 
sterling. 

A  a 


Japan  earth,  cachou. 


F.  Cachcu ,  *7 erre  du  Japan. 
G*  Japaniscbe  Erde,  Kate - 

cbu. 

D.  Japaansche  aarde . 


1.  Cacciuy  CattOy  Terra  cattu> 
Terra  Japonica. 

DA.  Japonish jorcl. 

SW.  Japanisk  jord. 

L.  Terra  Japonica . 


This  is  a  medicinal  and  aromatic  substance,  of  a  dark 
purple  colour;  very  austere  upon  the  palate,  seeming  to 
melt,  like  bole,  in  the  mouth,  and  leaving  somewhat  of 
a  sweetish  taste  behind  it.  It  is  much  esteemed  as  a 
strengthener  of  the  stomach,  and  sweetner  of  the  breath, 
after  having  been  reduced  to  an  impalpable  powder,  and 
mixed  with  ambergrease  and  gum  draganth,  and  so  made 
up  into  pastils. 

The  nature  of  this  drug  is  not  yet  ascertained:  some 
giving  it  a  place  among  medicinal  earths,  others  reckoning 
it  among  gums,  and  others  again  considering  it  a  compo¬ 
sition  of  several  drugs. 

The  best  Cachou  should  be  of  a  dark  red  colour  on 
the  outside,  and  a  clear  red  within,  not  burnt,  and  very 
glossy. 


F.  Jaspe . 

G.  Jaspiss. 
D.  Jaspis . 
I.  Diaspro. 
S.  Jaspe. 

P.  Jaspe. 


JASPER. 

DA.  J as  pis. 

SW.  Jaspis * 

POL.  Jaspid  katnien, 
R.  J ascbtna. 

L.  Jaspis. 


Jasper  is  a  sort  of  precious  stone,  chiefly  opake,  but 
sometimes  transparent  in  certain  parts,  not  very  different 
from  the  agate,  excepting  that  it  is  more  soft,  and  does 
not  take  so  good  a  polish. 

This  stone  is  of  various  colours;  as  red,  green,  white 
with  blue  stripes,  purple,  See.  What  is  now  most  valued 
is  the  green  spotted  with  red.  It  is  found  in  all  parts  of 


187 


the  East  Indies,  likewise  in  America,  and  several  parts  of 
Europe.  In  Misnia  and  Bohemia  it  is  met  with  of  a  red 
colour,  in  such  quantities,  and  such  large  pieces,  that  they 
manufacture  it  into  images.  It  is  likewise  used  for  seals, 
knife-handles,  sword  hilts,  Sec. 


JESUIT* s  BARK;  see  Peruvian  Bark . 


JEW’S  PITCH;  see  Bitumen  Judaicum. 


INDIAN  ARROW  ROOT,  maranta. 

It  has  a  stalk  and  leaf  exaCtly  like  the  plant  called  Indian 
shot;  but  the  flower  differs;  that  of  the  latter  being  a 
beautiful  scarlet,  and  that  of  the  former  milk  white.  The 
leaves  fall  in  December,  and  the  root  is  fit  to  dig  in  Ja¬ 
nuary.  It  is  mealy,  but  may  be  kept  perfectly  sound  for 
many  years,  as  no  inseCt  will  meddle  with  it. 

The  origin  of  the  name  is  said  to  be  this.  An  Indian 
being  taken  prisoner  after  he  had  wounded  an  European 
with  a  poisoned  arrow  was  put  to  the  torture,  till  he  pro- 
*  mised  to  cure  him;  and  performed  it  effectually  with  the 
root  of  this  plant,  applying  it  bruised  in  form  of  a  poultice, 
and  giving  the  juice  inwardly. 


INDIAN  CORN,  maize. 


F.  Bled  de  Purquie. 

G.  Purkisch  kora ,  Mays. 

D.  Purksch  koorn, 

I.  Grano  Purco  o  Siciliano , 
Grano  d*  India . 


S.  Prigo  de  Indias ,  Prigo  de 
Pur  quia. 

P.  Prigo  de  Pur  quia. 

DA.  Purkisk  bvede. 

SW.  Purkiskt  hvede . 

R.  Purezkoi  chljeb. 


Before  the  discovery  of  America  the  Indians  in  New 
England,  and  many  other  parts  of  America,  had  no  other 
vegetable  besides  the  zea  mays,  or  Maize,  for  making 
their  bread;  and  at  this  time  there  is  much  of  the  bread 


188 


of  the  country  made  of  this  corn.  In  Italy  and  Germany 
also  they  cultivate  Maize  as  a  food  for  the  poor  inhabi¬ 
tants. 

The  ear  of  the  Maize  yields  a  much  greater  quantity 
of  corn  than  any  of  our  corn  ears,  one  ear  or  spike  ge¬ 
nerally  consisting  of  about  six  hundred  grains,  which  are 
placed  closely  together  in  rows,  to  the  number  of  eight 
or  ten  and  sometimes  twelye.  The  grains  are  usually  yel¬ 
low,  but  sometimes  they  are  red,  bluish,  greenish,  or  olive 
coloured,  and  sometimes  striped  and  variegated.  There 
are  three  qr  four  varieties  of  Maize  in  different  parts  of 
America.  That  of  Virginia  is  very  tall  and  robust,  grow¬ 
ing  to  seven  or  eight  feet  high',  that  of  New  England  is 
shorter  and  lower;  and  the  Indians  further  up  the  country 
have  a  still  smaller  sort  in  common  use.  The  stalk  of 
the  Maize  is  joined  like  the  sugar  cane;  it  is  very  soft  and 
juicy,  and  the  juice  is  so  sweet  and  saccharine  that  a  syrup, 
as  sweet  as  that  of  sugar,  has  been  often  made  of  it;  and 
things  sweetened  with  it  have  been  found  not  distinguish¬ 
able  from  those  done  with  sugar.  It  has  not  yet  been 
tried  whether  it  will  crystallize  like  sugar,  but  in  all  pro¬ 
bability  it  will. 

The  stalk  of  this  plant  if  cut  up  before  too  much  dried 
is  an  excellent  winter  fodder  for  cattle.  The  husks  about 
the  ear  are  usually  separated  from  the  rest,  and  make  a 
particular  sort  of  fodder,  not  inferior  to  our  hay. 

To  reduce  the  grain  into  flour  it  is  carefully  parched 
in  an  oven,  and  then  put  in  mortars,  and  sifted.  The 
English  have  contrived  in  America,  by  mixing  the  flour 
into  a  stiff  paste,  either  by  itself,  or  with  rye  or  wheat 
meal,  fermenting  it  with  leaven  or  yeast,  and  baking  it 
in  a  hot  oven,  to  make  good  bread  of  it.  They  have 
likewise  found  out  a  method  of  making  good  beer,  either 
of  the  bread,  or  by  malting  the  grain. 


s 


189 


INDIAN  RUBBER,  lead  eater,  gum  elastic. 


F.  Gomme  Elastique ,  Caout- 
chou. 

G.  Gummi  Elasticum. 

D.  Veerkragtig  bars. 

I.  Gomma  o  Resina  Elastica. 
S.  Resina  Elastica,  XJle, 
Vice . 


P.  Borracha ,  Resinado  Para, 
Resina  elastica  das  borra  - 
chin  has, 

DA.  Fiergummi,  Elastisk 
Gummi. 

SW.  Elastisk  kada. 

L.  Gummi  Elasticum • 


The  syringe  tree  from  which  the  resinous  substance 
called  Gum  Elastic  is  procured,  has  not  yet  been  fully 
examined  by  the  botanists;  the  younger  Linnaeus  calls  it 
jatropha  elastica.  It  is  a  tree  of  moderate  size,  the  trunk 
of  which  is  smooth  and  yellowish,  the  leaves  pretty  large, 
the  flowers  white,  and  the  fruit  yellow  and  rather  round, 
but  angular;  within  it  there  are  kernels  as  large  as  filberts, 
which  have  a  bitter  taste. 

This  substance  oozes  out  under  the  form  of  a  vegetable 
milk,  from  incisions  made  in  the  tree,  and  is  gathered 
chiefly  in  time  of  rain,  because  it  then  flows  most  abun¬ 
dantly.  It  first  is  white  and  viscous,  afterwards  becomes 
yellow,  and  lastly  of  a  leaden  colour,  though  rather  black¬ 
er,  which  it  always  remains.  The  means  employed  to  in¬ 
durate  and  inspissate  this  juice  are  kept  a  profound  secret. 
Some  affirm  that  it  thickens  and  hardens  gradually  by 
being  exposed  to  the  air;  and  that  as  soon  as  it  acquires 
a  solid  consistence,  it  manifests  a  very  extraordinary  de¬ 
gree  of  flexibility  and  elasticity.  By  means  of  moulds  of 
clay  they  give  the  juice  any  desired  figure.  They  first 
spread  it  over  the  mould,  and  as  fast  as  one  layer  is  dry, 
another  is  added,  till  the  vessel  be  of  a  proper  thickness: 
the  whole  is  then  held  over  a  strong  smoke  of  vegetables, 
or  fire,  whereby  it  hardens  into  the  texture  and  appear¬ 
ance  of  leather;  and  before  the  finishing,  while  yet  soft, 
is  capable  of  having  any  impression  made  on  the  outside, 
which  remains  ever  after.  When  the  whole  is  done  the 
inside  mould  is  picked  out. 

Among  us  Gum  Elastic  is  used  by  surgeons  for  inje&ing 
liquids,  and  by  painters  and  others,  for  rubbing  out  black- 
lead  pencil  marks,  &c.  Gum  Elastic  may  be  dissolved  in 
ether,  which  solution  daubed  over  moulds,  is  used  among 


190 


us,  for  making  tubes,  catheters  and  other  instruments. 
Dissolved  in  spirit  of  turpentine,  and  mixed  with  nut  or 
linseed  oil,  it  is  fit  for  the  purposes  of  varnish  or  the  like. 
The  Indians  manufacture  it  into  boots,  bottles,  flambeaux, 
a  variety  of  figures  for  use  and  ornament,  and  also  a  kind 
of  cloth. 


F.  Indigo . 
G  Indigo. 
D.  Indigo. 
I.  Iridaco. 
S.  Anil. 

P.  Anil. 


INDIGO. 

« 

DA.  Indigo . 

SW.  Indigo. 

POL.  Indych. 

R.  Krutiky  Indigo . 
L.  Indigo . 


Indigo  is  a  blue  dye  prepared  from  the  leaves  and  small 
branches  of  the  indigofera  tinCloria.  This  plant  is  a  native 
of  Indostan,  and  was  first  transplanted  to  Mexico,  after¬ 
wards  to  the  Antilles,  and  lastly  to  South  Carolina,  and 
Louisiana.  It  rises  in  a  single  ligneous  brittle  stem,  about 
two  feet  high,  covered  with  a  grey,  ashcoloured  bark  to¬ 
wards  the  bottom,  green  in  the  middle,  and  reddish  at 
the  extremity.  The  leaves,  ranged  in  pairs  around  the 
stalk,  are  oval,  smooth,  soft  to  the  touch,  furrowed  above, 
and  of  a  deep  green  on  the  under  side.  At  the  extremity 
of  each  branch,  arise  clusters  of  reddish  flowers,  succeeded 
by  a  small  rounded  pod,  full  of  cylindrical,  shining,  and 
brownish  seeds.  It  is  commonly  sown  in  spring,  and 
moisture  causes  this  plant  to  shoot  up  in  three  or  four 
days.  It  is  ripe  at  the  end  of  about  two  months,  when  it 
begins  to  flower:  it  is  then  cut,  and  cut  again  at  the  end 
of  every  six  weeks,  if  the  weather  is  a  little  rainy.  It  lasts 
about  two  years,  after  which  term  it  degenerates.  It  ought 
to  be  gathered  in  with  great  precaution,  for  fear  of  making 
the  farina  that  lies  on  the  leaves  and  is  very  valuable,  fall 
off  by  shaking  it. 

The  plant  when  gathered  is  first  thrown  into  the  steep¬ 
ing  vat  till  that  is  three  parts  full.  A  number  of  rails  are 
then  laid  the  whole  length  of  the  vat,  and  strongly  wedged 
down  by  means  of  timbers,  which  are  made  to  press  upon 
them,  to  prevent  the  plants  from  buoying  up  when  water 


191 


is  put  upon  them.  The  softest  water  answers  best  for  the 
purpose,  and  as  much  is  let  in  as  the  plants  will  imbibe, 
covering  it  with  a  surface  of  four  or  five  inches.  In  this 
state  it  is  left  to  ferment.  In  twenty-four  hours  it  grows  so 
hot,  that  no  one  can  bear  the  hand  in  it;  and  if  the  pro¬ 
cess  goes  on  well,  it  will  bubble  like  water  in  a  pot  upon 
the  fire,  and  shew  a  tinge  of  a  very  dusky  blue.  Great 
nicety  is  required,  in  drawing  off  the  water  at  the  critical 
moment,  for  if  drawn  too  soon,  great  part  of  the  pulp  will 
be  lost:  if  too  late,  the  whole  may  be  spoiled. 

From  the  steeping  vat  the  liquor  is  drawn  off  into  the 
second  vat,  called  the  beater  or  mortar.  It  is  now  found 
impregnated  with  a  very  subtile  earth,  which  alone  con¬ 
stitutes  the  blue  substance,  and  which  must  be  separated 
from  the  useless  salt  of  the  plant;  to  effedt:  which,  the 
water  is  forcibly  agitated  for  the  space  of  fifteen  or  twenty 
minutes,  and  if  then  it  appears  curdled,  or  as  if  full  of 
small  grains,  a  quantity  of  clear  lime  water  is  gradually  let 
in,  to  augment  and  precipitate  the  colouring  particles; 
the  stirring  and  beating  the  liquor  being  still  continued, 
until  the  grain  by  degrees,  passes  from  a  greenish  cast 
into  a  fine  blue.  If  the  dye  should  be  agitated  too  long, 
the  parts  would  form  a  new  combination,  and  the  salt  re¬ 
acting  on  the  dregs,  would  excite  a  second  fermentation, 
which  would  alter  the  dye,  spoil  its  colour,  and  make  what 
is  called  burnt  Indigo.  When  the  dye  has  been  sufficiently 
agitated  the  dregs  must  be  left  to  settle  at  the  bottom  of 
the  tub,  which  they  will  do  in  eight  or  ten  hours.  The 
clear  water  is  then  very  gently  drawn  off  out  of  the  beating 
vat,  through  the  plug-holes  fixed  for  that  purpose,  a  few 
inches  above  the  bottom. 

The  blue  dregs  remaining  at  the  bottom  having  acquired 
the  consistence  of  a  thick  muddy  liquid,  cocks  are  then 
opened,  which  draw  it  off  into  the  third  vat,  called  the 
settler.  After  it  is  still  more  cleared  of  much  superfluous 
water  in  this  last  tub,  it  is  then  carefully  strained  through 
a  horsehair  sieve,  to  render  the  Indigo  perfedlly  clean, 
and  then  put  into  coarse  linen  bags,  eighteen  inches  long, 
and  twelve  wide,  which  for  the  space  of  five  or  six  hours 
are  suspended  in  the  shade,  to  drain  out  the  water.  The 
mouths  of  the  bags  are  then  well  fastened,  and  put  into  a 
press,  to  be  entirely  freed  from  any  remains  of  water.  The 
press  is  a  box  of  five  feet  in  length,  two  and  a  half  m 


width,  and  two  in  depth,  having  holes  at  one  end,  to  Idt 
off  the  drained  water.  In  this  press  the  Indigo  becomes 
a  fine  stiff  paste,  and  when  taken  out  of  the  bags,  it  is 
spread  upon  a  plank,  and  cut  into  squares  of  two  inches 
each,  which  are  ranged  under  cover,  in  a  free  air,  and 
when  thoroughly  dry,  it  is  packed  for  exportation. 

The  best  Indigo  ought  to  be  of  a  fine,  deep,  blue  colour 
inclining  to  violet,  of  a  smooth  grain,  and  bright  and 
sparkling,  especially  when  broken.  It  should  break  easily, 
swim  in  water,  and  burn  freely.  It  may  be  tried,  by  dis¬ 
solving  a  little  in  a  glass  of  water*,  if  pure,  it  will  mix 
equably  with  the  liquor,  but  if  otherwise,  it  will  separate 
and  fall  to  the  bottom.  By  fire,  the  pure  Indigo  will  be 
entirely  consumed,  while  the  extraneous  particles  will  re¬ 
main.  The  small,  or  dust  of  Indigo,  is  most  subject  to 
adulteration. 

The  principal  faults  in  Indigo  arise:  first,  from  too  long 
a  putrefaction  in  the  steeping  vat,  which  gives  it  a  black, 
dirty  hue;  secondly,  from  too  little  beating,  and  then  it 
has  a  coarse  grain,  and  a  greenish  colour;  thirdly,  from  too 
much  beating,  which  always  imbues  it  with  a  black  cast : 
fourthly,  from  a  mixture  of  the  particles  of  lime,  when  the 
lime  water  has  not  been  sufficiently  depurated,  or  when  too 
large  a  quantity  of  this  water  has  been  let  in,  which  ren¬ 
ders  it  greyish  and  hard:  fifthly,  for  want  of  limewater, 
or  when  none  is  used,  by  which  neglect  it  pever  comes  to 
a  due  granulation  nor  settles  well,  and  deposites  only  an 
inconsiderable  part  of  the  substance. 

The  Ancients  procured  all  their  Indigo  from  the  East 
Indies,  but  in  modern  times  the  cultivation  of  it  seems  to 
be  principally  fixed  besides  the  East  Indies,  in  Mexico, 
St.  Domingo,  Louisiana,  Carolina,  &c.  The  Indigo  shrub 
is  cultivated  also  though  all  Arabia,  and  several  wild  spe¬ 
cies  thereof  grow  over  that  country. 

The  Spanish  Indigo,  known  under  the  name  of  Guati- 
mala,  a  province  of  Mexico,  is  the  most  perfect  of  all  the 
different  kinds  of  Indigo;  then  comes  the  growth  of  Car- 
raccas,  a  Spanish  town  in  Terra  Firma.  The  East  India 
Indigo  stands  next  to  it  in  goodness,  and  that  coming  from 
the  British  possessions  is  superior  to  the  productions  of 
Manilla,  Java,  &c.  After  the  East  India  Indigo  follows 
the  growth  of  St.  Domingo,  then  that  of  Louisiana,  and 
lastly  the  produce  of  Carolina. 


193 


About  the  year  1620,  only  350,000  lb.  of  Indigo  were 
computed  to  be  consumed  annually  in  Europe.  In  later 
times,  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  alone,  have  consumed 
800,000  lb.  per  annum,  and  were  reckoned  to  pay  France 
£.200,000  stg.  yearly,  for  what  they  bought  from  her. 
The  face  of  this  trade  has  now  totally  changed.  Jamaica, 
about  the  year  16>72,  furnished  a  considerable  supply  of 
Indigo,  but  a  duty  of  3s.  6d.  per  pound  being  laid  on,  the 
planters  were  obliged  to  drop  it,  .and  the  French  islands, 
particularly  St.  Domingo,  supplied  not  only  Great  Britain, 
but  the  greater  part  of  Europe.  A  wiser  parliament,  af¬ 
ter  the  manufacture  began  to  thrive  in  Carolina,  took  off 
the  duty,  and  granted  a  bounty  of  6d.  per  pound,  on  all 
Indigo  raised  in  the  American  colonies  and  imported  into 
Great  Britain;  so  that  about  1747  the  Carolinians  remit¬ 
ted  about  200,000  lb.  to  Great  Britain,  and  the  culture  of 
this  production  has  since  continued  to  increase.  The  cul¬ 
ture  of  Indigo  has  in  later  times  been  so  wonderfully  in¬ 
creased,  and  the  quality  so  improved  in  the  British  East 
Indies,  that  now,  three  fourths  of  all  the  Indigo  brought 
into  the  European  market  come  from  the  East  Indies,  and 
are  in  quality  little  inferior  to  the  Spanish  Indigo. 

The  manner  in  which  the  Giiatimala  and  Caraccas  In¬ 
digo  is  procured  is  worthy  of  remark.  In  these  beautiful 
countries,  where  every  estate  is  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
leagues  in  extent,  a  part  of  this  large  space  is  annually 
devoted  to  the  culture  of  Indigo.  For  this  purpose  it  is 
sufficient  to  burn  the  shrubs  which  cover  the  grounds, 
and  carelessly  to  pass  the  plough  once  over  them.  This  is 
done  in  the  month  of  March,  a  season  when  it  very  Seldom 
rains  in  these  delightful  climates.  A  iTT^i  on  horseback 
then  scatters  the  seed  of  the  plant,  in  the  same  manner  as 
we  sow  corn  in  Europe;  after  which  no  one  pays  any  at¬ 
tention  to  this  valuable  production  till  the  time  of  gather¬ 
ing  it.  As  great  quantities  of  Indigo  are  in  this  manner 
choaked  by  the  weeds,  the  Spaniards,  accordingly,  gather 
less  Indigo  from  an  extent  of  three  or  four  leagues,  than 
others  do  from  a  few  acres  of  ground  carefully  managed; 
and  this  Indigo,  though  superior  to  any  other,  is  not  so 
perfect  as  it  might  be.  Europe  receives  thereof  annually 
about  6,000  cwt. 

B  b 


194 


IPECACUANHA. 


F.  Ipecacuanha  ; 

G.  Amerikanische  Brechwur- 


S.  Ipecacuana. 


P.  Ci'po  de  camaras ,  Ipecd - 


zel%  Ruhrwurzel. 

D.  Braaknuortel  Roodenloop - 


DA.  Brcekrod. 
SW.  Krdkrot. 


cuanha. 


<ivcrtel. 

I.  Ipccocacanna. 


L.  Radiz  Ipecacuanrue . 


Ipecacuanha  is  the  root  of  a  3pecies  of  psychotria.  Of 
this  root  there  are  principally  two  kinds,  the  one  is  ash 
coloured  or  grey,  and  brought  from  Peru;  the  other  is 
brown,  and  brought  from  the  Brasils.  The  former  is  a 
small  wrinkled  root,  bent  and  contorted  into  a  great  va¬ 
riety  of  figures,  with  a  small  white  woody  fibre  that  runs 
in  the  middle  of  each  piece.  The  cortical  part  is  com¬ 
pact,  brittle,  looks  smooth  and  resinous  upon  breaking, 
has  very  little  smell,  and  the  taste  is  bitterish  and  subacrid. 

The  brown  sort  is  smaller  and  somewhat  more  wrink¬ 
led  than  the  former;  of  a  brown  or  blackish  colour  with¬ 
out,  and  white  within. 

The  ash  coloured  or  grey  Ipecacuanha  is  that  usually 
preferred. 

A  third  sort,  called  the  white  Ipecacuanha  from  its  co¬ 
lour,  has  also  been  distinguished.  It  is  woody,  has  no 
wrinkles,  and  no  perceptible  bitterness  in  taste.  This, 
though  taken  in  a  large  dose,  has  scarce  any  effect  at  all* 
and  is  therefore  by  some  called  bastard  Ipecacuanha. 

Ipecacuanha  was  first  brought  into  Europe  about  the 
middle  of  the  last  century  ;  but  it  did  not  come  into  gene¬ 
ral  use  till  about  the  year  1686,  and  is  now  used  as  one  of 
the  safest  emetics,  and  frequently  prescribed  in  dysente¬ 
ries. 

The  roots  of  a  kind  of  apocynium  (dogs  bane),  are  too 
frequently  sold  instead  of  Ipecacuanha;  but  if  the  marks 
above  laid  down,  particularly  the  ash  colour,  brittleness, 
deep  wrinkles,  and  bitterish  taste  be  carefully  attended  to* 
all  mistakes  can  be  prevented. 


IRON. 


P.  Fer. 

G.  Ei sen, 
D.  Tzer. 
I.  Ferro. 
S.  Hierro. 
P.  Ferro . 


DA.  Iern. 

SW.  Iern. 

POL.  Zelazo, 

R.  Sheleso. 

L.  Ferrum>  Mars . 


Iron  is  one  of  the  hardest  and  most  useful,  as  well  as 
the  most  plentiful  metals;  of  a  livid  whitish  colour  incli¬ 
ning  to  grey,  susceptible  of  a  fine  polish,  and  capable 
of  having  its  hardness  more  increased  or  diminished  by 
chemical  processes,  than  any  other  metal.  Next  to  tin  it 
is  the  lightest  of  all  metals,  losing  between  a  seventh  and 
eighth  part  of  its  weight  when  immersed  in  water.  When 
very  pure  it  may  be  drawn  into  wire  as  fine  as  horse  hair; 
but  is  much  less  capable  of  being  beaten  into  thin  leaves 
than  the  other  metals,  excepting  only  lead.  Iron  grows 
red  hot  much  sooner  than  any  other  metal,  and  this  not 
only  from  the  application  of  actual  fire,  but  likewise  from 
strong  hammering,  friction,  or  other  mechanic  violence. 
It  nevertheless  melts  the  most  difficultly  of  all  metals  ex¬ 
cept  manganese  and  platina.  When  perfectly  malleable, 
it  is  not  fusible  at  all  by  the  heat  of  furnaces,  without  the 
addition  of  an  immediate  contact  of  burning  fuel:  all  the 
common  operations  which  communicate  one  of  these  qua¬ 
lities,  deprive  it  at  the  same  time  of  the  other,  as  if  fu¬ 
sibility  and  malleability  were  in  this  metal  incompatible. 

It  is  very  generally  diffused  throughout  the  globe,  being 
frequently  found  mixed  with  sand,  clay,  chalk,  and  being 
likewise  the  colouring  matter  of  a  great  number  of  stones 
and  earth.  It  is  found  also  in  the  ashes  of  vegetables,  and 
in  the  blood  of  animals,  in  such  abundance,  that  some  au¬ 
thors  have  attributed,  both  the  colour  of  vegetables,  and 
the  vital  fluid  itself,  to  the  iron  contained  in  them. 

In  consequence  of  this  abundance,  the  Iron  ores  are 
extremely  numerous.  It  is  found:  1.  Native  Iron  in  Si¬ 
beria,  Senegal,  &c.  2.  Calciform  ores,  composed  of  the 
blackish,  blackish  brown,  brown,  or  red  calx  of  the  metal ; 
whereof  there  are  a  great  many  species,  all  mixed  with  dif- 


196 


ferent  minerals.  3.  The  Magnet,  which  is  a  mucldy  Iron 
ore.  4.  Magnetic  sand*,  of  this  kind  is  the  blackish  sand 
of  Virginia,  producing  above  60  per  cent,  in  Iron  and 
steel.  5.  Ochres  of  different  jjpnds ;  here  belong  the 
blood  stone,  found  in  great  abundance  in  Galizia  in 
Spain,  and  sold  by  the  inhabitants  for  the  burnishing  of 
gold  leaves;  various  ochres  are  also  used  as  paint.  6.  Eme¬ 
ry,  found  in  large  quantities  in  the  islands  of  Jersey  and 
Guernsey,  and  used  in  polishing  glass  and  metals;  for 
■which  purpose  it  must  first  be  ground.  7.  Martial  pyrites; 
to  which  belong  the  bluish  grey  pyrites  or  marcasite,  con¬ 
sisting  of  Iron  mineralized  by  sulphur  and  arsenic.  8.  Na¬ 
tive  Prussian  blue,  consisting  of  clay  mixed  with  Iron,  and 
coloured  with  some  unknown  tinging  substance,  generally 
found  in  swampy  grounds  or  bogs.  9.  The  terre  verte, 
or  green  earth  of  Verona  and  Normandy,  is  used  as  a! 
pigment,  and  contains  Iron  in  some  unknown  state,  mixed 
with  clay. 

Iron  is  employed  in  three  different  states,  each  having 
its  peculiar  properties.  The  first  is  cast  Iron,  the  second 
wrought  or  malleable  Iron,  and  the  third  is  called  steel. 
According  to  Bergman,  cast  Iron  which  may  be  called 
unripe  or  raw  Iron,  contains  the  smallest  share  of  phlo-1 
giston:  the  malleable  Iron  contains  the  greatest  quantity: 
and  the  steel  a  middling  share  between  both.  This  last  is 
called  also  pig-iron  and  yetlin  in  England. 

The  richest  ores  of  Iron  are  the  compact  and  ponde¬ 
rous;  of  a  brownish,  reddish  brown,  or  red  colour:  some 
yielding  no  less  than  seventy  or  eighty  per  cent,  of  Iron. 

The  British  Iron  is  made  from  three  different  kinds  of 
ores.  1.  From  the  Iron  ore  called  the  Lancashire  ore, 
from  the  country  where  it  is  found  in  the  greatest  abun¬ 
dance.  This  ore  is  of  a  fibrous  and  lamellated  texture, 
and  of  a  dark  purplel  2.  The  bog  ore,  which  resembles 
a  deep  yellow  ochry  clay,  and  seems  to  be  the  deposition 
of  some  ferruginaceous  rivulets,  whose  current  had  for¬ 
merly  been  over  the  flat  marshy  plains  where  it  is  found. 
3.  The  iron  stones;  they  do  not  resemble  a  metal  in  their 
external  surface,  and  lie  often  in  beds  of  great  extent,  like 
other  stony  matters. 

The  other  ores  of  Iron  are  commonly  calcined  previous  to 
the  fusion,  in  order  to  render  the  masses  soft  enough  to  be 
easily  broken  into  fragments  of  a  convenient  size  for  melt- 


197 


ing.  After  the  metal  is  duly  prepared,  it  must  be  smelted* 
in  furnaces  of  large  capacities,  from  sixteen  to  twenty- five 
feet  high,  and  ten  to  fourteen  wide,  below  which  is  a 
square  cavity  to  contain  the  melted  metal.  Near  the  bot¬ 
tom  is  an  aperture,  for  the  insertion  of  the  pipe  of  a  large 
bellows,  worked  by  water,  or  by  other  machines,  that 
may  produce  a  strong  current  of  air.  Two  or  more  holes 
are  left  ready  to  be  occasionally  opened  at  the  bottom  of 
the  furnace,  to  permit  at  a  proper  time  the  scoria  and  the 
metal  to  flow  out,  as  the  process  may  require.  Charcoal 
or  coke  with  lighted  brushwood  is  first  thrown  in: 
and  when  the  inside  of  the  furnace  has  acquired  a  strong 
ignition,  the  ore  is  thrown  in  by  small  quantities  at  a  time, 
with  more  of  the  fuel.  The  ore  gradually  subsides  in  the 
hottest  part  of  the  furnace,  where  it  becomes  fused;  and 
the  metallic  parts  being  revived  by  the  coal,  pass  through 
the  scoria,  and  fall  to  the  lower  part  or  bottom  of  the 
furnace,  where  a  passage  is  open  for  taking  off  the  scum 
tor  dross.  The  metal  now  in  strong  fusion  is  let  out  by 
a  tap-hole  into  furrows  made  of  a  bed  of  sand:  the  large 
mass,  which  sets  in  the  main  furrow,  is  called  by  the 
workmen  a  sow,  and  the  lesser  ones  pigs  of  Iron. 
Chimney  backs,  stoves,  garden-rollers,  &c.  are  formed  of 
this  rough  metal,  taken  out  of  the  receiver  with  ladles, 
and  cast  into  moulds  made  of  fine  sand. 

The  best  cast  Iron  is  not  at  all  malleable,  and  so  hard, 
as  perfectly  to  withstand  the  file  ;  when  broken,  it  has  the 
appearance  of  being  composed  of  grain;  whereas  forged, 
wrought,  malleable,  or  bar  Iron,  appears  to  consist  of 
plates.  Forged  Iron  has  long  been  procured  by  bringing 
a  mass  of  cast  Iron  nearly  to  the  melting  point,  and  pla¬ 
cing  it  under  large  hammers,  to  undergo  violent  and  re¬ 
peated  compressions.  Cast  Iron  has  also  of  late  been 
brought  into  a  malleable  state,  by  passing  through  rollers, 
instead  of  forging  it.  Indeed  this  seems  to  be  a  real  im¬ 
provement  in  the  process.  The  squeezing  it  between  the 
rollers  forces  out  the  melted  flags  from  the  metallic  pores, 
and  brings  its  metallic  fibres  into  complete  contact.  By  a 
few  repetitions  of  either  the  process  with  the  hammers, 
or  with  the  rollers,  cast  Iron  becomes  compleatly  malle¬ 
able,  and  is  at  length  formed  into  bars  for  sale. 

1  A  still  more  simple  process  has  recently  been  brought  in 
use  for  converting  cast  Iron  into  forged;  this  is  by, heat 


198 


alone.  The  cast  Iron  is  placed  into  an  air  furnace,  and 
kept  for  several  hours  in  a  degree  of  heat  by  which  it  is 
brought  near  to  the  fluid  state.  It  is  then  allowed  to  cool 
gradually,  and  is  found  to  be  converted  into  forged  Iron. 
To  explain  this,  it  will  be  necessary  to  observe,  that  cast 
Iron  is  brittle,  because  it  has  not  had  the  opportunity  of 
crystallizing  regularly.  When  it  is  exposed  to  cold,  while 
fluid,  the  surface  becoming  solid,  prevents  the  inner  parts 
from  expanding  and  arranging  themselves  into  regular 
crystals.  When  cast  Iron  is  near  brought  to  a  melting 
point,  and  continued  for  a  sufficient  time  in  that  degree 
of  heat,  the  particles  have  the  opportunity  of  arranging 
themselves  into  that  form  of  crystals,  by  which  forged 
Iron  is  distinguished,  and  by  Which  it  possesses  cohesion 
and  all  its  properties, 

Iron  is  applied  to  numberless  purposes  in  the  arts  and 
manufactures;  among  others,  it  serves  as  the  basis  of  the 
fine  blue  pigment,  called  Berlin  or  Prussian  blue.  By  ce¬ 
mentation  with  inflammable  matters,  Iron  imbibes  a  lar¬ 
ger  quantity  of  phlogiston,  and  becomes  much  harder, 
less  malleable,  and  more  fusible.  It  is  then  called  steel. 

Generally  speaking,  the  best  Iron  is  that  which  is  soft¬ 
est  and  toughest,  and  when  it  breaks  is  of  an  even  greyish 
colour,  without  any  of  those  glittering  specks,  or  any  flaws 
or  divisions  like  those  seen  in  broken  antimony. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  Iron  which  have  properties 
very  different  from  one  another;  as  English  Iron  which  is 
coarse,  hard,  and  brittle,  fit  for  fire  bars,  and  such  uses. 
Swedish  Iron,  which  is  a  fine  tough  sort,  will  best  endure 
the  hammer,  is  softest  to  file,  and  in  all  respects  the  best 
to  work  upon.  German  Iron,  commonly  called  in  Eng¬ 
land,  Dort  square,  because  brought  thither  from  Dort,  is 
wrought  into  bars  of  three  quarters  of  an  inch  square;  be¬ 
ing  a  coarse  Iron,  and  only  fit  for  ordinary  uses. 

Iron  is  principally  imported  into  this  country  from  Swe¬ 
den  and  Russia:  a  smaller  quantity  but  of  superior  quality, 
from  Sweden.  The  Russia  Iron  comes  from  the  port  of 
St.  Petersburg,  and  consists  of  assorted,  and  common  bar 
Iron.  The  assorted  Iron  is  in  squares  and  flats  of  particu¬ 
lar  dimensions.  The  common  bars  are  either  old,  or 
new  sable  Iron,  of  various  fabrics;  as  Alex.  Greg.  Demi- 
doffs,  N.  N.  DemidofFs,  Jacoloffs,  &c.  old  sable;  and  Gu« 
rioffs,  Twerdichoffs,  Gleboffs,  &c.  new  sable  Iron. 


m 


ISINGLASS. 


G.  Hausenblase . 
D.  Huisenblaas . 
T .  Colla  di  pesce. 
S.  Col-pez . 


F.  Co  lie  de  Poisson . 


DA.  HuusblaaSy  Carlocko 
SW.  Husblas. 

POL.  Klei  ryby ,  Karluk. 
R.  Klei  rubiiiy  Karluk . 

L.  Ichthyocolla. 


P.  Cola  de  peixe. 

Isinglass  is  a  preparation  from  fish,  principally  from  that 
Called  huso,  Linn,  accipenser.  The  method  of  making 
Isinglass  was  long  a  secret  in  the  hands  of  the  Russians, 
but  has  lately  been  discovered,  and  the  following  account 
of  it  published  by  Humphrey  Jackson,  Esq.  in  the  63d  vo¬ 
lume  of  the  Philosophical  Transactions;  he  says:  “  If  what 
«  is  commercially  called  long  or  short  staple  Isinglass  be 
«  steeped  a  few  hours  in  fair  cold  water,  the  entwisted 
“  membranes  will  expand,  and  reassume  their  original 
«  beautiful  hue,  and  by  a  dexterous  address  may  be  per- 
tc  fectly  unfolded.  By  this  operation,  we  find  that  Isin- 
s(  glass  is  nothing  more  than  certain  membraneous  parts  of 
“  fishes,  divestfed  of  their  native  mucosity,  rolled  and 
“  twisted  into  the  form  above  mentioned,  and  dried  in 
“  open  air.” 

“  The  sounds,  or  air  bladders  of  fresh-water  fish  in  ge- 
M  neral,  are  preferred  for  this  purpose,  as  being  the  most 
u  transparent,  flexible,  delicate  substances.  These  con- 
“  stitute  the  finest  sorts  of  Isinglass;  those  called  book  and 
<c  ordinary  staple,  are  made  of  the  intestines,  and  proba- 
“  bly  of  the  peritonaeum  of  the  fish.  The  beliuga  yields 
u  the  greatest  quantity,  as  being  the  largest  and  most  pleft- 
cc  tiful  fish  in  the  Muscovy  rivers;  but  the  sounds  of  all 
*c  fresh-water  fish  yield,  more  or  less  fine  Isinglass,  par- 
“  ticularly  the  smaller  sorts,  found  in  prodigious  quanti- 
(i  ties  in  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  several  hundred  miles  be- 
<c  yond  Astracan,  in  the  Wolga,  Yaik,  Don,  and  even  as 
“  far  as  Siberia.” 

“  Isinglass  receives  its  different  shapes  in  the  following 
<(  manner.” 

“  The  parts  of  which  it  is  composed,  particularly  the 
s<  sounds,  are  taken  from  the  fish  while  sweet  and  fresh. 


“  slit  open,  washed  from  their  slimy  sordes,  divested  of 
“  every  thin  membrane  which  envelopes  the  sound,  and 
“  then  exposed  to  stiffen  a  little  in  the  air.  In  this  state 
“  they  are  formed  into  rolls  about  the  thickness  of  a  finger, 
“  and  in  length  according  to  the  size  of  the  intended  sta- 
“  pie.  A  thin  membrane  is  generally  selected  for  the 
“  centre  of  the  roll,  round  which  the  rest  are  folded 
“  alternately,  and  about  half  an  inch  of  each  extremity 
“  of  the  roll  are  turned  inwards.  The  due  dimensions 
“  being  thus  obtained,  the  two  ends  of  what  is  called 
“  short  sfaple  are  pinned  together,  with  a  small  wooden 
“  peg*,  the  middle  of  the  roll  is  then  pressed  downwards? 
“  which  gives  it  the  resemblance  of  a  heart-shape;  and 
“  thus  it  is  laid  on  boards,  or  hung  up  in  the  air  to  dry.” 

“  The  sounds  which  compose  the  long  staple  are  longer 
“  than  the  former;  but  the  operator  lengthens  this  sort  at 
“  pleasure,  by  interfolding  the  ends  of  one  or  more  pie- 
“  ces  of  the  sounds  with  each  other.  The  extremities  are 
“  fastened  with  a  peg,  as  the  former;  but  the  middle  part  is 

bent  more  considerably  downwards;  and  in  order  topre- 
“  serve  the  shape  of  the  three  obtuse  angles  thus  formed,  a 
“  piece  of  round  stick  is  fastened  in  each  angle.  In  this 
“  state  it  is  permitted  to  dry,  long  enough  to  retain  its 
“  form,  when  the  pegs  and  sticks  are  taken  out,  and  the 
“  drying  compleated.” 

“  The  membranes  of  the  book  sort  being  thick  and  re- 
“  fractory,  will  not  admit  a  similar  formation;  the  pieces 
“  therefore,  after  their  sides  are  folded  inwardly,  are  bent 
“  in  the  centre,  in  such  manner,  that  the  opposite  sides 
“  resemble  the  cover  of  a  book,  from  whence  its  name.” 

“That  called  eahe  Isinglass  is  formed  of  the, bits  and 
“  fragments  of  the  staple  sorts,  put  into  a  flat  metalline 
“  pan  with  a  very  little  water,  and  heated  just  enough 
“to  make  the  parts  cohere  like  a  pancake  when  it  is 
“  dried  ” 

Isinglass  is  chiefly  used  for  clarifying  wine,  malt  liquors, 
cyder,  coffee,  & c.  It  is  likewise  reducible  into  jelly 
with  alkaline  liquors,  and  is  also  sometimes  used  in  me¬ 
dicine. 

The  peculiar  shapes  given  to  Isinglass  might  probably  be 
introduced  originally  with  a  view  to  conceal  and  disguise 
its  real  substance,  but  as  the  mark  is  now  taken  OS',  it  can* 


201 


not  be  doubted  to  answer  every  purport  more  effectually 
in  its  native  state;  and  the  sounds  of  cod  and  ling  might 
prove  valuable  substitutes  for  the  Isinglass  imported  from 
Russia. 

JUNIPER  BERRIES, 


F.  Bales  de  Genevre • 

G.  Wachholder  bceren. 

D.  Dambesien ,  Gene'uerbessen. 
I.  Cocole  di  ginepro. 

S.  Bay  as  de  enebro . 

P.  Bagas  de  zimbro. 


DA.  Enebeer . 

SW.  Enbar. 

POL.  J dlegwiec  iagody,. 
R.  Moshsbuch'u. 

L.  Junipers  baccee. 


Juniper  berries,  are  the  fruit  of  the  juniperus  shrub. 
They  have  a  strong,  not  disagreeable  smell,  and  a  warm* 
pungent,  sweet  taste;  which  if  they  are  long  chewed,  or 
previously  well  bruised,  is  followed  by  a  bitterish  one. 
The  pungency  seems  to  reside  in  the  bark;  the  sweet  in 
the  juice;  the  aromatic  flavour  in  oily  vesicles  spread 
through  the  substance  of  the  pulp,  and  distinguishable 
even  by  the  eye;  and  the  bitter  in  the  seeds.  The  fresh 
berries  yield,  on  expression,  a  rich,  sw'eet,  honey-like, 
aromatic  juice;  if  previously  pounded,  so  as  to.  break  the 
seeds,  the  juice  proves  tart  and  bitter.  They  are  to  be 
chosen  fresh,  plump,  and  of  a  strong  taste. 

These  berries  are  useful  carminatives  and  stomachics; 
for  which  purposes  a  spirituous  water,  and  essential  oil, 
are  prepared  from  them.  The  liquor  remaining  after  the 
distillation  of  the  oil,  passed  through  a  strainer,  and  gently 
exhaled  to  the  consistence  of  a  rob,  proves  likewise  a  me¬ 
dicine  of  great  utility.  In  Germany,  Juniper  berries  are 
used  frequently  in  the  kitchen,  and  they  also  prepare  a 
kind  of  wine  from  them.  The  Laplanders  drink  infusions 
of  it  as  we  do  tea  and  coffee.  In  the  geneva  manufa&o-. 
lies  it  is  one  of  the  principal  ingredients. 

Juniper  berries  are  imported  in  this  country  from  Ger¬ 
many  and  Italy. 

The  whole  Juniper  plant  has  a  strong  aromatic  smell. 
The  wood  when  burnt  emits  a  fragrant  odour  like  incense, 
is  of  a  reddish  colour,  very  hard  and  durable,  and  when 
large  enough,  is  used  in  marquetry  and  veneering,  and 
in  making  cups,  cabinets,  See,  The  oil  of  Juniper  mixed 
with  that  of  nuts  makes  an  excellent  varnish  for  pictures, 

Cc 


202 


wood  work,  and  preserving  iron  from  rusting.  The  resin 
powdered  and  rubbed  into  paper,  prevents  the  ink  from 
sinking  through  it,  for  which  it  is  frequently  used  under 
the  name  of  pounce. 


IVORY, 


F.  I<voire. 

G.  Elfenbein . 

D.  T<voor. 

I.  Avorio,  Ajvolio. 
S.  Marjil. 

P.  Marfim.. 


DA.  Elfenbeen . 

SW.  E  Jen  ben . 

POL.  Slomonva  Kosc , 
R.  Kost  slononxja . 

L.  Ebur, 


Ivory  is  a  hard,  solid  substance,  of  a  white  colour,  and 
capable  of  a  very  good  polish.  It  is  the  tusks,  or  teeth 
of  the  elephant,  and  hollow  from  the  base  to  a  certain 
height*,  the  cavity  being  filled  up  with  a  compact  medul¬ 
lary  substance,  seeming  to  have  a  great  number  of  glands 
in  it. 

Elephants’  teeth  are  brought  to  us  from  the  East  Indies, 
and  from  the  coast  of  Guinea.  They  are  valuable  in  pro¬ 
portion  to  their  size;  those  that  weigh  a  cwt.  or  more,  are 
the  most  costly;  the  second  class  comprehends  such  as 
require  two  teeth  to  make  a  cwt,.  or  more;  the  third  class, 
three  to  the  cwt.  or  more. 

Ivory  laid  for  twelve  hours  in  aqua  fortis,  and  then 
three  days  in  the  juice  of  beets,  will  become  so  soft,  that 
it  may  be  worked  into  any  form:  strong  vinegar  will  har¬ 
den  it  again. 

IVORY  BLACK. 


F.  Noir  d'i-vcire. 

G.  Elfelbeinscbwarx. 
D.  F/u'weelz'wart. 

I.  Nero  cP a<v or io. 


S.  Negro  de  Marjl. 

P.  Negro  de  Mar  Jim. 
DA.  Elfenbeen  sw  art  e. 
SW.  Elfenbens<v'drta. 


Ivory  black  is  prepared  from  ivory,  or  bones  burnt  in 
a  close  vessel.  This,  when  finely  ground,  forms  a  more 
beautiful  and  deeper  colour  than  lamp  black;  but  in  the 
common  methods  of  manufacturing  it  is  so  much  adulte¬ 
rated  with  charcoal  dust,  and  so  grossly  levigated,  as  to 
be  unfit  for  use. 


KELP ;  see  Pot-ashes. 


fcERMES,  KCRMES  GRAINS,  SCARLET  BERRIES. 


E.  Kermes  de  Provence> 


S.  Gr ana  kermes,  Grana  de  la 


millon. 

G.  S char  lac  h  beeren . 

D.  Grein ,  Scharlakenbessen. 
I.  Grana ,  Chernies,  Cremese, 


Vermiglione\  Cocchi . 


Graines  d’ecarlate ,  Ver- 


coscoja ,  V ermellon. 

P  Graa ,  Alquer me s ,  Kermes  > 
DA.  Kermes  beer. 

SW.  Kermes  brer. 

POL.  Szarlatne  jagody. 

R.  Berri. 

L.  Grana  chermes . 


Kermes  grains  are  the  produce  of  an  inseft,  called  coc<» 
eus  iiicis,  which  inhabits  the  quercus  coccifera.  It  is  found 
in  the  woods  of  Vauvert,  Vandeman,  and  Narbonne  in 
France:  but  more  abundantly  in  Valencia,  Murcia,  Jaeii, 
Cordova,  Seville,  Estremadura,  La  Mancha,  and  other 
parts  of  Spain*,  also  in  the  Levant  and  other  countries. 

Both  Ancients  and  Moderns  seem  to  have  had  very  con¬ 
fused  ideas  concerning  the  origin  and  nature  of  the  Ker¬ 
mes;  but  it  is  now  ascertained  that  it  is  the  body  of  an 
insedt,  a  species  of  the  cochineal,  transformed  into  a  grain, 
berry,  or  husk,  according  to  the  course  of  nature. 

The  progress  of  this  transformation  must  be  considered 
at  three  different  seasons.  First,  in  the  beginning  of 
March,  an  animalcule,  no  larger  than  a  grain  of  millet, 
scarce  able  to  crawl,  is  perceived  sticking  to  the  branches 
of  the  tree,  where  it  fixes  itself,  and  soon  becomes  im¬ 
moveable;  at  this  period  it  grows  the  most,  and  appears 
to  swell  and  thrive  by  degrees  with  the  sustenance  it  draws 
in.  At  the  second  stage,  in  April,  its  growth  is  completed; 
its  shape  is  then  round,  and  about  the  size  of  a  pea;  it  haa 
now  acquired  more  strength,  and  seems  to  be  covered  with 
a  dusty  husk  or  capsule,  full  of  a  reddish  juice,  not  unlike 
discoloured  blood.  In  its  third  state,  towards  the  end  of 


May,  the  husk  seems  to  be  replete  with  small  eggs,  less 
than  the  seed  of  a  poppy.  These  are  placed  under  the 
Belly  of  the  insert,  in  the  nest  of  down  that  covers  its  body. 
It  now  soon  dies,  though  it  still  adheres  to  its  position* 
shielding  its  progeny  from  the  inclemency  of  the  weather. 
In  a  good  season  they  multiply  exceedingly,  having  from 
1,800  to  2,000  eggs.  The  poor  are  then  employed  to 
gather  the  Kermes,  the  womeu  letting  their  nails  grow* 
for  that  purpose,  in  order  to  pick  them  off  with  greater 
facility. 

Those  who  buy  the  Kermes  to  send  to  foreign  parts, 
spread  it  on  linen;  taking  care  to  sprinkle  it  with  vinegar, 
to  kill  the  worms  that  are  within.  This  produces  a  red 
dust,  which  in  Spain  is  separated  from  the  husk.  Then 
they  let  it  dry,  passing  it  through  a  seafce,  and  make  it 
up  into  bags  5  in  the  middle  of  each,  its  proportion  of  red 
dust,  put  in  a  small  leather  bag.  In  the  kingdom  of  Se¬ 
ville  they  dry  the  Kermes  on  mats  in  the  sun,  stirring 
it  about,  and  separating  the  red  dust,  which  is  the  finest 
part,  and  being  mixed  with  vinegar,  goes  by  the  name 
of  y  pastel.  The  lutsks  have  but  half  the  value  of  the 
dust.  • 

Kermes  Was  a  dye  well  known  to  the  Greeks  and  Ro¬ 
mans,  and  it  was  procured  then  chiefly  from  Asia  and 
Africa.  In  the  middle  ages,  we  meet  with  Kermes  under 
the  name  of  vermiculus  or  vermiculum.  Hence  the  French 
word  Vermeil,  and  its  derivative  Vermilion ,  the  latter  of 
which  originally  signified  the  red  dye  of  Kermes,  but  is 
now  used  for  any  red  paint,  and  also  for  fine  pounded 
cinnabar.  The  Kermes  was  known  in  Germany  as  early 
as  the  twelfth  century ;  but  when  the  American  cochineal, 
on  the  discovery  of  that  country,  came  to  Europe,  the 
French  and  Spanish  Kermes  were  almost,  and  the  Ger¬ 
man  entirely  forgotten.  At  present  the  Kermes  is  chiefly 
used  on  the  coast  of  Barbary  for  dying  red;  principally 
at  Tunis  for  dying  those  scarlet  caps  so  much  used  in 
the  Levant.  The  Spanish  Kermes  is  preferred  to  the 
French. 

Kermes  is  also  used  in  medicine. 


KID  and  LAMB  SKINS;  see  Shins . 


305 


LAC,  GUM-LAC, 


G.  Gummilak . 
D.  Gomlak. 


I.  Gommalacca, 
S.  Goma  lac  a. 


F.  Gcmmelacqne. 


DA.  Gummilak . 

$ W.  Gummilak. 
POL.  Gumalaka. 
R.  Gummilak. 


L.  Gumtni  laccce . 


P.  Laca  em  faos* 


The  coccus  lacea,  or  G urn-lae  animal,  is  a  native  of 
the  East  Indies.  The  head  aftd  trunk  form  one  uniform, 
oval,  compressed,  red  body,  of  the  shape  and  magnitude 
of  a  very  small  louse,  consisting  of  twelve  transverse  rings. 
Of  this  size  it  is  when  it  sallies  forth  from  the  womb  of 
the  parent,  in  November  or  December.  By  the  middle 
of  January  they  are  ail  fixed  in  their  proper  situations, 
upon  the  succulent  extremities  of  the  young  branches. 
Their  edges  are  environed  with  a  spissid,  subpellucid  li¬ 
quid,  which  seems  to  glue  them  to  the  branch:  it  is  the 
gradual  accumulation  of  this  liquid,  which  forms  a  com¬ 
plete  cell  for  each  insect,  and  is  what  is  called  Gum-lac. 
About  the  middle  of  March  the  cells  are  completely  formed, 
and  the  insert  is  in  appearance  an  oval,  smooth,  red  bag, 
without  life,  about  the  size  of  a  small  cuchanical  insert, 
emarginated  at  the  obtuse  end,  and  full  of  a  beautiful  red 
liquid.  In  October  and  November  we  find  about  twenty 
or  thirty  oval  eggs,  or  rather  young  grabs,  within  the  red 
fluid  of  the  mother.  When  this  fluid  is  all  expended, 
the  young  inserts  pierce  a  hole  through  the  back  of  their 
mother,  and  walk  off,  leaving  their  exuviae  behind,  which 
is  that  white  membranous  substance  found  in  the  empty 
cells  of  the  stick-lac. 

These  inse&s  are  the  inhabitants  of  four  trees;  1,  the 
ficus  religiosa,  and  2,  the  ficus  indica,  Linnsei;  3,  the 
plaso,  Hortus  malabarici ;  and  4,  the  rhamnus  jujuba, 
Linnsei. 


206 


The  Gum-lac  of  this  country  is  principally  found  upon 
the  uncultivated  mountains  on  both  sides  the  Ganges* 
where  bountiful  nature  produces  it  in  such  abundance, 
that  was  the  consumption  ten  times  greater,  the  markets 
might  be  supplied  by  this  minute  insert.  The  best  Lac 
is  of  a  deep  red  colour;  if  it  is  pale  and  pierced  at  the 
top  the  value  diminishes,  because  the  inserts  have  left  their 
cells,  and  therefore  can  be  of  no  use  as  a  dye  or  colour, 
but  probably  they  are  better  for  varnishes. 

Lac  is  used  among  us  in  various  arts ;  being  employed 
in  the  preparation  of  spirit  varnishes,  for  the  making  of 
sealing  wax,  and  as  a  colouring  material  for  dying  scarlet. 
The  colour  given  by  Lac  is  less  beautiful,  but  more  dura¬ 
ble  than  that  given  by  cochineal.  Lac  is  likewise  employed 
for  medicinal  purposes,  and  stick-lac  is  the  sort  used. 

Besides  the  Gum-lac,  which  is  the  cell  of  the  insedt  co¬ 
loured  red  by  its  dead  body  contained  in  it  there  is  the 
Stick-lac,  which  is  the  white  membranous  substance  found 
in  the  empty  cells,  or  the  wax  adhering  to  some  of  the 
small  branches  of  the  tree ;  being  the  exuviae  of  the  young 
insedh  This  Lac  when  separated  from  the  adhering  sticks, 
and  grossly  powdered,  is  called  Seed-lac ;  when  the  Stick- 
lac  is  freed  from  impurities  by  melting  over  a  gentle  fire, 
and  formed  into  casks,  it  is  called  Lump-lac ;  and  lastly, 
that  called  Shell-lac  is  the  cells  liquified,  and  formed  into 
thin  transparent  laminae. 

A  red  medicinal  gum  is  procured  by  incision  from  the 
plaso  tree  so  similar  to  the  Gum-lac,  that  it  may  readily 
be  taken  for  the  same  substance.  Hence  it  is  probable, 
that  those  inserts  have  little  trouble  in  animalizing  the  sap 
of  these  trees,  in  the  formation  of  their  cells. 


LAMPBLACK. 


F.  No  ir  ae  Fumes . 

G.  Kienruss. 

D.  Znxjartzel. 

f.  Nero  di  fumo,  Negrofumo. 
S.  Negro  de  hu?nc. 

P.  F err ugem  da  chammine. 


DA.  Kor.rog. 
SW.  Kimrok . 
POL.  Sadz. 
R.  Sasha. 

L.  Fuligo. 


Lampblack  is  the  finest  of  the  soot  blacks,  and  more 
used  than  any  other.  Its  preparation  is  dependent  on  the 


207 


making  of  common  rosin:  the  impure  resinous  juice  col¬ 
lected  from  incisions  made  in  pine  and  fir  trees  is  boiled 
down  with  a  little  water,  and  strained  whilst  hot  through 
a  bag:  the  dregs  and  pieces  of  bark  left  in  the  strainef 
are  burnt  in  a  low  oven,  from  which  the  smoke  is  con¬ 
veyed  through  a  long  passage,  into  a  square  chamber, 
having  an  opening  on  the  top,  on  which  a  large  sack  made 
of  thin  woollen  stuff  is  fixed;  the  soot,  or  Lampblack 
concretes  partly  in  the  chamber,  from  whence  it  is  swept 
out  once  in  two  or  three  days,  and  partly  in  the  sack, 
which  is  now  and  then  gently  struck  upon,  both  for 
shaking  down  the  soot,  and  for  clearing  the  interstices 
betwixt  the  threads,  so  as  to  procure  sufficient  draught 
of  air  through  it.  In  this  manner  Lampblack  is  prepared 
at  the  turpentine  houses  in  England,  from  the  dregs  and 
refuse  of  the  resinous  matters  which  are  there  manu¬ 
factured. 

LAPIS  ARMENUS;  see  Copper. 

LAPIS  CALAMINARIS ;  Calamine. 

LAPIS  LAZULI,  azure  stone. 

This  is  a  very  costly  stone,  of  a  blue  colour,  veined  and 
spotted  with  white  and  yellow,  of  which  is  prepared  the 
|ine  pigment  called  ultramarine. 

The  real  Lapis  Lazuli  is  found  in  the  mountains  of  that 
part  of  Tartary  called  Bucharia,  which  extends  eastwards 
from  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  particularly  at  Kalab  and  Bu- 
duckschu.  It  is  sent  thence  to  the  East  Indies,  and  from 
the  East  Indies  to  Europe.  As  large  pieces  of  a  fine  colour, 
and  pure,  are  scarce,  even  in  that  country,  and  as  they  are 
employed  in  making  ornaments  and  toys,  the  rough  stone 
itself  is  costly;  and  this  high  price  is  increased  in  the  ul¬ 
tramarine,  by  its  laborious  preparation;  though  in  later 
times  the  process  has  been  rendered  much  easier. 

This  stone,  to  be  of  good  quality,  and  proper  for  ma¬ 
king  ultramarine,  should  be  heavy,  little  mixed  with  rock, 
having  veins  of  copper,  and  of  a  deep  blue,  inclining  to 


208 


that  of  fine  indigo.  Care  should  be  taken  of  its  not  being 
rubbed  with  oil  of  olives,  which  makes  it  appear  of  a  deeper 
blue  than  it  would  naturally  be;  and  this  imposition  may 
be  discovered  by  breaking  it,  when  if  the  colour  be  found 
paler  within  than  without,  it  is  a  sufficient  sign  that  it 
lias  been  falsified-  Whether  the  azure  stone  is  of  a  good 
quality  may  be  also  known,  by  heating  it  in  the  fire  till 
it  reddens;  which  far  from  changing  its  colour,  gives  it, 
on  the  contrary,  a  new  lustre. 

There  is  a  sort  of  Lapis  Lazuli  very  common  in  France, 
whose  colour  inclines  to  green,  being  chiefly  found  in 
Provence;  but  its  quality  is  much  inferior  to  that  which 
comes  from  Tartary  and  India,  being  in  no  respedl  proper 
for  the  making  of  good  ultramarine. 


LEAD. 


F.  Plomb. 

G.  Blei. 

D.  Lood,  Loot. 
I.  Piombo. 

S.  Plotno. 

P.  C bumbo. 


DA.  Bly>  Blye. 
6W.  Bly. 

POL.  Olciu. 

R.  S-vjinez. 

L.  Plumbum . 


Lead  is  a  pale,  or  livid-white  metal,  soon  losing  its 
brightness  in  the  ajr,  and  contracting  a  blackish  or  greyish 
ash  colour.  It  is  the  softest  and  most  flexible  of  all  me¬ 
tallic  bodies;  but  not  dudtile  to  any  great  degree,  either 
in  the  forth  of  wire  or  leaf;  coming  far  short  in  this 
respect,  of  all  other  metals.  It  has  also  the  least  tenacity 
of  all  metallic  bodies.  Lead  has,  however,  a  considerable 
specific  gravity;  losing  when  immersed  in  water,  between 
one  eleventh  and  one  twelfth  of  its  weight.  It  is  of  all 
metals  the  most  fusible,  excepting  only  tin  and  bis¬ 
muth. 

The  plumbers  cast  thin  sheets  of  Lead  upon  a  table  or 
mould  covered  with  woollen,  and  above  this  a  linen  cloth, > 
without  burning  or  scorching  the  cloths. 

The  melted  Lead  is  received  in  a  wooden  case  without 
a  bottom;  which,  being  drawn  down  the  sloping  table  by 
a  man  on  each  side,  leaves  a  sheet  of  its  own  width,  and 
more  or  less  thin,  according  to  the  greater  or  smaller 
celerity  of  its  descent.  For  thick  plates,  the  table  is  co° 


209 


vered  over  with  moistened  sand,  and  the  liqttid  metal  con¬ 
ducted  evenly  over  it,  by  a  wooden  strike,  which  bears  oil 
a  ledge  at  each  side.  Some  have  preferred  for  mechanic 
uses,  the  milled  lead,  or  flatted  sheets. 

Lead  is  put  up  for  sale  either  in  pigs,  bars,  or  sheets.  The 
milled  or  sheet  lead  is  the  dearest,  then  follow  the  bars, 
and  the  pigs  are  the  lowest  sort. 

The  Principality  of  Wales,  and  some  parts  contiguous 
to  it,  have  very  considerable  Lead  mines;  amongst  them 
deserve  to  be  enumerated  the  very  rich  mines  in  the  neigh¬ 
bourhood  of  Holywell,  the  mine  in  Llanrwst  vale  in  North 
Wales,  several  Lead  mines  near  the  village  of  Llangynnog, 
amongst  which,  the  mine  called  Craig-ymwyn  yielded  an¬ 
nually  about  four  thousand  tons,  but  having  been  filled 
with  water,  has  but  lately  been  attempted  to  be  drained 
again.  The  styper  stones,  a  rocky  traCt  between  the  high 
road  from  Shrewsbury  to  Bishopscastle,  and  the  vale  of 
Montgomery,  have  £lso  very  productive  Lead  mines.  In 
the  island  of  Anglesey,  not  three  quarters  of  a  yard  beneath 
the  common  soil,  is  a  bed  of  yellowish  greasy  clay,  from 
one  to  four  yards  thick,  containing  Lead  ore,  and  yielding 
from  six  hundred  to  one  thousand  pounds  of  Lead  per  ton. 
Derbyshire,  Flintshire,  and  Montgomeryshire,  are  also 
very  rich  in  Lead  mines;  and  upon  the  whole,  this  metal 
is  found  in  greater  quantities  in  Great  Britain,  than  in. 
any  other  country. 

Lead  yields  the  dullest  and  weakest  sound  of  all  metallic 
bodies. 

Though  this  metal  very  soon  loses  its  lustre,  and  tar¬ 
nishes  in  the  air,  it  resists  much  longer  than  copper  or 
iron,  the  combined  aCtion  of  air  and  water,  and  hence  it 
is  exceedingly  useful  for  many  purposes. 

When  just  become  fluid,  Lead  looks  bright  like  quick¬ 
silver,  but  immediately  contracts  a  variously-coloured  pel¬ 
licle  on  the  surface.  If  this  is  taken  off,  and  the  fire  con¬ 
tinued,  a  fresh  pellicle  will  always  be  formed,  till  the  metal 
is  by  degrees  changed  into  a  dusky  powder  or  calx.  The 
injeCtion  of  a  little  fat,  charcoal  powder,  or  other  inflam¬ 
mable  matter,  prevents  this  change,  and  readily  revives 
the  calx  into  Lead  again. 

For  the  preparation  of  black,  white,  red,  and  litharge 
of  Lead,  see  the  respective  heads.  In  Holland,  and  per¬ 
haps  in  other  places,  it  has  been  customarv  to  correCt  the 
D  d 


2  ro 


most  offensive  expressed  oils,  as  that  of  rape  seed,  and  rancid 
oil  of  almonds  or -olives,  by  impregnating  them  with  Lead. 
This  dangerous  abuse  may  be  discovered,  by  mixing  a 
little  of  that  oil  with  a  solution  of  orpiment,  or  liver  of 
sulphur,  made  in  lime  water;  for  on  shaking  them  to¬ 
gether,  and  suffering  them  to  rest,  the  oil,  if  it  has  any 
saturnine  tint,  will  appear  of  an  orange  red,  and  if  pure, 
of  a  pale,  yellowish  one.  A  similar  abuse  is  also  practised 
with  sour  wines,  which  dissolve  as  much  of  the  lead  as 
communicates  a  sweetish  taste.  If  a  few  drops  of  the  just- 
mentioned  test  liquor  be  put  in  a  glass  of  the  suspedted 
wine,  it  will,  if  adulterated  with  lead,  exhibit  a  precipi¬ 
tation  like  a  dark  coloured  cloud,  which  is  owing  to  the 
attachment  of  the  Lead  to  the  sulphur  in  the  orpiment. 
Lead  unites  with  most  other  metals.  It  cannot,  however, 
be  united  with  iron ;  but  if  both  are  exposed  to  the  fire 
-in  a  proper  vessel,  the  Lead  scorifies  the  iron,  by  seizing 
on  its  phlogiston;  after  which  it  melts  with  the  calx  into 
a  dark  coloured  glass.  This  property  which  lead  possesses, 
of  reducing  all  the  imperfedt  metals  to  glass,  is  the  reason 
of  its  being  used  in  the  purification  of  gold  and  silver, 
neither  of  which  can  be  touched  by  it,  but  remain  pure, 
in  the  bottom  of  the  cupel. 

Lead  is  employed  in  making  of  various  vessels,  and  fre¬ 
quently  mixed  with  tin  by  the  pewterers;  a  pradtice  how¬ 
ever  which  is  very  dangerous. 

Lead,  when  taken  in  the  human  body,  is  produdtive  of 
various  disorders,  particularly  a  kind  of  dangerous  cholic, 
terminating  in  a  palsy;  and  as  all  the  common  earthenware 
is  glazed  with  minium,  the  use  of  it  cannot  be  supposed 
to  be  void  of  danger  in  all  cases.  Fountains,  or  vessels  of 
Lead  which  contain  water,  often  communicate  a  noxious 
quality  to  it,  when  suffered  to  remain  long  full.  Its  va¬ 
pour  is  dangerous  to  the  workmen  who  melt  it,  and  the 
fumes  falling  upon  the  grass,  render  it  poisonous  to  the 
cattle  who  eat  it;  the  fish  who  inhabit  the  water  near 
smelting  houses  soon  die,  nor  is  it  safe  for  any  animal  to 
drink  it.  Even  the  external  use  of  Lead  in  surgery  is  not 
altogether  safe.  Certain  it  is,  that  all  workmen  who  deal 
much  in  Lead,  are  subjedl  to  the  cholic  above  mentioned, 
from  the  habitual  contadl  of  the  metal  or  its  calces,  even 
though  they  neither  take  it  internally,  nor  are  exposed 
to  its  fumes. 


f'H 


LEATHER. 


D.  Leder,  Leer < 


F.  Cuir . 

G.  Leder. 


DA.  Lader. 
SW.  I&fcr. 
POL.  Rzemien. 


1.  Cuojo. 
S.  Cuero. 


R.  Kasha. 
L.  Crium . 


P.  Couro ,  Cairo. 

Leather  is  the  tanned  skin  or  hide  of  animals.  The  use 
of  tanning  is  twofold,  first  to  preserve  the  Leather  from 
rotting,  and  then  to  render  it  impervious  to  water. 

An  infusion  of  any  strongly  astringent  vegetable  will 
serve  to  tan  Leather  so  far  as  to  prevent  its  rotting*,  but 
if  this  vegetable  does  not  contain  a  good  deal  of  gum  resin, 
it  will  not  answer  for  enabling  it  to  keep  out  water;  and 
hence  it  is,  that  oak  bark,  which  is  more  abundant  in  the 
gummy  resinous  part,  than  any  of  our  common  indigenous 
astringents,  is  preferred  to  all  other  substances  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  tanning. 

The  tanners  prepare  their  bark  by  gently  drying  it  on 
a  kiln,  and  grinding  it  into  a  very  coarse  powder.  They 
then  either  use  it  in  the  way  of  infusion,  which  is  called 
ooze,  or  they  strew  the  dry  powder  between  the  layers  of 
hides  and  skins,  when  these  are  laicf  away  in  tlie  tan  pits. 

The  first  operation  of  the  tanner  is,  to  cleanse  his  hides 
from  all  extraneous  filth,  and  remove  any  remains  of 
flesh  or  fat,  which  may  have  been  left  behind  by  the 
butcher. 

The  hair  is  next  to  be  taken  off;  and  this  is  accomplished, 
either  by  steeping  the  hides  for  a  short  time  in  a  mixture 
of  lime  and  water,  or  by  rolling  them  up  close,  and  piling 
them  in  heaps,  where  they  quickly  begin  to  heat  and  putri- 
fy.  This  hair  being  loosened,  is  scraped  off,  and  the  tanner 
proceeds  to  the  operation  called  fleshing;  which  consists  in 
a  further  scraping,  with  a  particular  kind  of  knife,  contrived 
For  the  purpose,  and  cutting  away  the  jagged  extremities, 
and  offal  parts,  such  as  the  ears  and  nostrils. 

The  raw  Leather  is  then  put  into  an  alkaline  ley,  in 
order  to  discharge  the  oil,  and  render  its  pores  more  capar 
ble  of  imbibing  the  ooze.  The  tanners  of  this  country, 
generally  make  their  ley  of  pigeon’s  dung;  but  a  more 


active  one  may  be  prepared  from  kelp,  or  potash;  taking 
care  however,  not  to  make  it  too  strong  of  the  ashes,  nor 
to  allow  the  Leather  to  remain  too  long  in  the  ley. 

The  oil  being  sufficiently  discharged,  the  Leather  is  rea¬ 
dy  for  the  ooze,  and  at  first  is  thrown  into  smaller  holes, 
which  are  termed  handlers,  because  the  hides  or  skins 
during  this  part  of  the  process  are  taken  up,  from  time 
to  time,  and  allowed  to  drain;  they  continue  to  work  the 
Leather  in  those  handlers,  every  now  and  then  stirring  it 
up  with  the  utensil  called  a  plunger,  which  is  nothing  more 
than  a  pole  with  a  knob  at  the  end  of  it,  until  they  think 
proper  to  lay  it  away  on  the  vats.  In  these  holes,  which 
are  the  largest  in  the  tan  yard,  the  Leather  is  spread  out 
smooth,  whereas  they  toss  it  into  the  handlers  at  random, 
and  between  each  layer  of  Leather  they  sprinkle  on  some 
powdered  bark,  until  the  pit  is  filled  by  the  Leather  and 
bark,  thus  laid  in  stratum  super  stratum:  ooze  is  then 
poured  on,  to  fill  up  the  interstices,  and  the  whole  crowned 
with  a  sprinkling  of  bark. 

In  this  manner  the  Leather  is  allowed  to  macerate  un¬ 
til  the  tanner  sees  it  is  completely  penetrated  by  the  ooze; 
when  this  is  accomplished  the  manufacture  is  finished, 
so  far  as  relates  to  tanning;  since  nothing  pow  remains 
but  to  dry  the  goods  thoroughly;  by  hanging  them  up 
in  airy  lofts  built  for  the  purpose.  Such  in  general  is 
the  process  for  tanning  calf  skins*,  and  the  lighter  sorts 
of  hides,  but  the  large,  thick,  heavy  hides,  of  which  the 
strongest  kind  of  sole  Leather  is  made,  require  to  have 
their  pores  more  thoroughly  opened  before  the  ooze  can 
sufficiently  penetrate  them.  For  this  purpose,  while  the 
hides  are  in  the  putrescent  state  from  being  allowed  to 
heat  in  the  manner  already  mentioned,  and  well  soaked 
in  an  alkaline  ley,  they  are  thrown  into  a  sour  liquor,  gene¬ 
rally  brewed  from  rye,  in  order  that  the  effervescence 
which  necessarily  ensues,  may  open  the  pores.  It  seems 
that  the  foreign  tanners  knew  nothing  of  this  branch  of  the 
business;  indeed  their  whole  process,  according  to  M.  de 
la  Lande  is  slovenly,  and  even  more  tedious  than  our 
method,  and  makes  but  indifferent  Leather. 

When  this  operation  is  accomplished,  the  Leather  is  put 
into  the  handlers,  and  worked  in  them  for  the  requisite 
time;  then  laid  away  in  the  vats,  and  there  left  to  mace- 


213 


rate,  until  the  tanning  is  found  to  be  completely  finished 
which  for  this  kind  of  Leather,  requires,  from  first  to 
last,  full  two  years. 

It  is  this  tediousness  of  the  process  which  enhances  the 
value  of  Leather;  and  the  returns  being  so  slow  the  trade 
of  tanning  never  can  be  carried  on  to  advantage  but  by 
people  of  large  capital. 

The  quantity  of  Leather  butts  annually  exported  from 
this  country  to  most  parts  of  Europe  is  very  conside¬ 
rable. 

Under  the  denomination  of  tanned  hides  are  compre¬ 
hended  sole  Leather,  and  upper  Leather. 

Sole  Leather  consists  of  butts,  backs,  bends,  clout  Lea¬ 
ther  and  crope  soles.  Butts  are  generally  made  of  the  lar¬ 
gest  ox  or  cowhides,  and  are  tanned  whole,  except  the 
pates  and  tails.  Backs  are  made  from  small,  as  much  as 
from  large  hides,  and  slit  down  the  back  in  two  parts,  for 
the  conveniency  of  tanning  and  packing.  Bends  are  cut 
off  the  best  part  of  the  hide,  as  the  back,  ribs,  shoulders, 
and  buttocks:  so  that  out  of  one  hide  there  may  be 
made  six,  eight,  or  ten  bends.  Clout  leather  are  a  small 
sort  of  bends.  Crope  soles  are  cut  off  the  back  of  good 
upper  Leather  hides. 

Upper  Leather  are  roundings,  ranejs,  wombs,  dippings, 
and  heads;  being  only  the  thin  part,  or  offal  of  the  hides* 


LEMNIAN  EARTH;  see  Terra  Lemma . 


LEMONS. 


F.  Citrons,  Limons, 

G.  Limonen,  Citronen. 
D.  Limoenen ,  Citroenen. 
I.  Limoni, 

S.  Limones ,  Limoes. 


DA.  Limoner ,  Citroner 
SW.  Limoner ,  Citroner, 
POL.  Limonii . 

R.  Limonii, 

L.  Limoni  a. 


The  citrus  lima,  or  Lemon  tree,  has  an  upright  smooth 
trunk,  divided  at  the  top  into  a  branchy  regular  head; 
from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  high;  large  oval,  spear-shaped, 
pointed,  slightly  sawed  leaves,  on  lineal  footstalks;  and 
many  flowers  from  the  sides  of  the  branches,  succeeded  by 


214 


large  oval  fruit,  prominent  at  the  top.  The  varieties  are: 
the  Lemon  tree  with  sour  fruit;  with  sweetish  fruit;  with 
very  large  fruit  called  Imperial  Lemon;  with  pear  sha¬ 
ped  fruit;  with  furrowed  fruit;  with  clustered  fruit;  with 
childing  fruit;  with  whitish  fruit;  with  tricoloured  striped 
fruit,  &c. 

The  flowering  and  fruit  setting  season  for  the  Lemon 
tree  is  chiefly  in  June  and  July.  It  continues  blowing  and 
setting  fruit,  for  three  months,  when  a  full  crop  is  set* 
The  fruit  is  of  a  green  colour  first,  turning  yellow  as  it 
grows  ripe.  Its  shape  is  almost  oval,  and  divided  into  se¬ 
veral  cells,  in  which  are  lodged  hard  seeds,  surrounded 
by  a  thick  fleshy  substance,  full  of  an  acrid  juice.  The 
best  Lemons  should  be  large,  weighty,  and  of  a  thin  rind. 

In  the  southern  part  of  France,  Spain,  Portugal,  and 
Italy,  there  are  forests  full  of  Lemon  trees,  and  a  conside¬ 
rable  trade  is  carried  on  in  transporting  them  to  all  the 
northern  parts  of  Europe.  They  are  to  that  purport  wrap¬ 
ped  up  in  soft  paper,  and  packed  up  in  chests. 

The  Lemon  yields  a  very  agreeable  acid  juice,  which 
besides  its  common  use,  answers  considerable  purposes  in 
medicine.  The  yellow  peel  of  the  Lemon  is  an  agreeable 
aromatic  and  excellent  stomachic;  it  is  also  used  by  the 
confe&ioners  to  be  candied.  Considerable  quantities  of 
pickled  Lemons  are  annually  shipped  from  the  Mediterra¬ 
nean  for  the  Baltic.  The  true,  unadulterated  oil,  ob* 
Sained  from  Lemon  peel,  is  very  valuable. 


LIGNUM  VITiE,  guajacum,  pockwood. 


F.  Gayac ,  Boss  saint . 

G.  Pockholx. 

D.  Pockbout. 

I.  Guajaco ,  Legno  santo. 
S.  GuayacOj  Palo  santo . 
P.  Guaiaco,  Pao  sane  to . 


DA.  Pokkentrae ,  Frans  os - 
trree. 

SW.  Pockenholts ,  Fransos- 
enholts. 

POL.  Gwaiak. 

R.  Bakaut. 

L.  Guaiacum. 


The  Lignum  vitae  tree  is  a  native  of  the  West  Indies  and 
the  warmer  parts  of  America;  there  is  also  a  species  a  na¬ 
tive  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  It  is  a  large  tree  rising 
at  its  full  growth  to  the  height  of  forty  feet,  and  measur- 


215 


ing  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  in  diameter^  having  a 
hard,  brittle,  brownish  bark,  not  very  thick. 

The  wood  is  firm,  solid,  ponderous,  very  resinous,  of 
a  blackish  yellow  colour  in  the  middle,  and  a  hot  aromatic 
taste.  It  is  so  hard,  as  to  break  the  tools  which  are  em¬ 
ployed  in  felling  it,  and  is  therefore  seldom  used  as  fire¬ 
wood,  but  is  of  great  use  to  the  sugar  planters,  •  for  ma¬ 
king  wheels  and  cogs  to  the  sugar  mills.  It  is  also  frequent¬ 
ly  wrought  in  bowls,  mortars,  and  other  utensils.  It  is 
imported  into  England,  in  large  pieces  of  four  or  five 
cwt.  each,  and  from  its  hardness  and  beauty,  is  in  great 
demand  for  various  articles  in  the  turnery  ware,  and 
for  trucks  of  ship-blocks.  The  wood,  gum,  bark,  fruit, 
and  even  the  flowers  of  this  plant  have  been  found  to  pos¬ 
sess  medicinal  virtues.  This  wood  was  first  introduced 
into  Europe  as  a  remedy  for  the  venereal  disease,  whence 
the  origin  of  the  name  Pockwood. 

In  the  choice  of  the  wood,  that  which  is  the  freshest, 
most  ponderous,  and  of  the  darkest  colour,  is  the  besti 
and  the  largest  pieces  are  to  be  preferred. 


LINSEED,  LINTSEED,  FLAXSEED. 


F.  Lin,  Graine  de  Lin . 

G.  Leinsaat. 

D.  Lynzaad. 

I.  Lin  seme. 

S.  Linaza. 

P.  Linhaca. 


DA.  Hbrrfrbe. 

SW.  L inf ro . 

POL.  Siemie ,  Ini  am. 
R.  Semja  lenjanoe. 

L.  Lini  semen. 


Linseed  is  the  seed  of  flax,  and  is  either  sowing  or 
crushing  seed:  the  former  of  a  more  clean  and  superior 
quality  to  the  latter  which  is  used  for  the  oil  mills. 

The  brighter  in  colour  and  the  cleaner  and  heavier  the 
seed  is,  the  better.  That  which,  when  bruised,  appears 
of  a  light  or  yellowish  green,  and  fresh  in  the  heart,  oily, 
and  not  dry,  of  sweet  taste  and  smell,  not  musty,  may  be 
depended  upon  as  a  good  sowing  seed. 

The  flax  being  generally  preferred  in  this  country  to 
the  seed,  as  being  more  valuable,  the  latter  is  sacrificed, 
and  considerable  quantities  imported  in  consequence. 


216 


Our  crushing  seed  generally  comes  from  Archangel,  St- 
Petersburg,  Riga,  Konigsberg,  and  other  ports  of  the 
Baltic.  That  coming  from  Konigsberg  is  of  the  best 
sort,  and  the  quality  decreases  in  proportion  as  the  ports 
lay  further  to  the  north. 

Of  sowing  seed,  Dutch  seed  of  the  preceding  year’s 
growth  is  preferred.  Riga  sowing  seed  is  also  esteemed. 


LINSEED  OIL. 


F.  Huile  cfe  Lin. 

G.  LeinoL 
D.  Lynoli . 

I.  Olio  di  Into. 

S.  Aceite  de  linaza. 
P.  Oleo  de  linbaca. 


DA.  Liinolie ,  Horrolie , 
SW.  Linolja. 

POL.  Oley  Iniany. 

R.  Lnjanoe  masslo . 

L.  Oleum  lini. 


This  Oil  is  obtained  by  expression  from  Linseed  ;  it  has 
most  of  the  qualities  of  nut  oil,  and  is  accordingly  some¬ 
times  used  instead  thereof  by  painters,  printers,  and  for 
burning.  In  many  parts,  particularly  in  Poland,  it  is  also 
used  in  the  kitchen.  That  drawn  without  the  assistance  of 
fire  is  of  much  esteem  in  medicine. 


LIQUORICE, 

F.  Reglisse. 

G.  Suisholzsaft. 

D.  Zcetbout. 

I.  Pasta  liquirizia. 

S.  Regaliz,  Orozuz. 

P.  Regoliz ,  Rogoliz ,  Alca- 
cuz. 


SPANISH  JUICE. 

DA.  Lakrizrod. 

SW.  Lakritsrot . 

POL  Lakrycia ,  Slodki  kor - 
zen. 

R,  Koren  soledko'woi. 

L  .  Glycyrrbiza. 


The  glycirrhiza,  or  common  Liquorice  shrub,  has  a 
long,  thick,  creeping  root,  striking  several  feet  deep  into 
the  ground  j  an  upright,  firm,  herbaceous,  annual  stalk, 
three  or  four  feet  high,  garnished  with  winged  leaves,  of 
four  or  five  pair  of  oval  lobes,  terminated  by  an  odd  one  : 
and  from  the  axillas,  ere£t  spikes  of  pale  blue  flowers  in 
July,  succeeded  by  short  smooth  pods. 

The  root  of  this  plant  is  the  useful  part,  being  replete 
with  a  sweet,  balsamic,  pectoral  juice,  which  is  either  ex- 


21T 


iracteck  or  the  wood  sold  in  substance.  It  is  much  used 
in  all  compositions  for  coughs  and  disorders  of  the  sto¬ 
machy  but  by  far  the  greatest  quantity  is  used  by  brewers. 

The  common  Liquorice  is  cultivated  in  most  countries 
of  Europe,  for  the  sake  of  its  root  *,  but  in  Spain  and  Ita¬ 
ly,  and  particularly  in  Sicily  and  Calabria,  it  makes  a  con¬ 
siderable  article  of  commerce  with  this  country.  In  Cala¬ 
bria,  Liquorice  is  chiefly  manufactured,  and  exported 
from  Corigliano,  Rossano,  Cassano,  and  Palermo.  The 
Calabria  Liquorice  upon  the  whole  is  preferable  10  that 
coming  from  Sicily,  and  the  Italian  paste  to  that  coming 
from  Spain.  Liquorice  also  grows  in  great  abundance  in 
the  Levant,  and  vast  quantities  of  it  are  consumed  there 
in  making  a  decoction  which  is  drank  cold  in  the  sum¬ 
mer  in  the  manner  of  sherbet. 

To  prepare  Liquorice,  the  roots  are  boiled  a  long  time 
in  water,  till  the  fluid  has  got  a  deep  yellow  tin&ure;  and 
the  water  at  length  evaporated  till  the  remains  acquire  a 
consistency,  whep  they  are  formed  into  sticks,  which  are 
packed  up  with  bay.  leaves,  in  the  same  order  as  we  re¬ 
ceive  them.  The  boiling  requires  the  utmost  care  and 
precaution,  as  the  juice  takes  an  unpleasant  smell  and  fla¬ 
vour  if  burnt  in  the  least  degree.  This  paste  is  manufac¬ 
tured  from  the  month  of  November  till  March,  the  warm 
season  being  very  unfavourable  for  it  y  so  much  so,  that  it 
is  not  adviseable  to  ship  any  in  summer,  as  it  easily  runs 
in  one  mass  in  the  boxes,  and  then  is  only  to  be  sold  for 
damaged  Liquorice. 

The  round  sticks  are  preferable  to  the  flat  ones,  and 
the  good  quality  is  to  be  brittle,  bright,  without  pores, 
and  of  a  good  fragrant  smell. 


LITHARGE, 


F.  Litharge. 

G.  Glcelte. 

D.  Gelit. 

I,  Litargirio. 

S.  Almartnga,  Litarjirio. 
P.  Almartaga ,  Lithargirio . 


DA.  G’qJ. 

SVV.  Glut,  Gletie. 
POL.  G'eyie ,  Gift  a. 
R.  Glet. 

L  Lilhargyriutn. 


There  are  two  kinds  of  Litharge,  the  one  natural,  the 
other  artificial.  The  natural  is  a  mineral,  sometimes 
E  e 


218 


found  in  lead  mines;  reddish,  scaly,  brittle,  and  somewhat 
resembling  white  lead,  Tut  this  kind  is  so  scarce,  that 
the  artificial  kind  only  is  to  be  met  with  in  commerce. 

If  instead  of  keeping  the  calx  of  lead  in  a  continued 
moderate  heat,  as  is  done  for  the  manufactory  of  red  lead, 
it  be  suddenly  fused;  the  matter  then  puts  on  a  foliated 
appearance,  changing  to  a  dull  kind  of  brick  colour  when 
powdered,  and  is  called  Litharge.  Most  of  this  substance 
is  produced  byrefining  silver  with  lead;  and*is  of  two 
kinds,  red  and  white. 

These  two  sorts  are  distinguished  by  the  names  of  Li¬ 
tharge  of  gold,  and  Litharge  of  silver.  The  most  perfect  is 
the  former:  the  pale  sort  contains  a  considerable  propor¬ 
tion  of  lead  in  its  metallic  state;  and  even  the  highest  co¬ 
loured  Litharge  is  seldom  free  from  a  little  metallic  lead, 
discoverable  and  separable,  by  melting  the  mass  in  a  cru¬ 
cible;  when  the  lead  subsides  to  the  bottom. 

Litharge  is  used  in  the  composition  of  plaisters,  to  give 
them  a  due  consistence.  Potters  use  it  to  give  a  beau¬ 
tiful  gloss  to  their  ware;  it  is  also  used  by  painters,  dyers, 
skinners,  and  glaziers.  When  mixed  with  wine  it  gives 
it  a  bright  sprightly  colour,  but  renders  it  extremely  un¬ 
wholesome. 


LOGWOOD. 


F.  Bois  de  Campeche. 

G.  B'auhohz. 

D.  Kampechehcmt . 

I.  Campeggio,  legno  tauro. 
S.  Paolo  de  Campeche. 

P.  Pao  de  Campeche. 


DA.  Blaaholty  Campesche - 
Ira 

SW.  Campeschetra. 

POL  Kampesza . 

R  Kampetschkoe  dcrenvo. 

L.  Hamatoxylum . 


Logwood  grows  naturally  in  the  bay  of  Campeachy,  at 
Honduras,  andv  other  parts  of  the  Spanish  West  Indies; 
also  in  Jamaica;  and  rises  from  sixteen  to  twenty-four 
feet  high.  The  stems  are  generally  crooked  and  very  de¬ 
formed,  and  seldom  thicker  than  a  man’s  thigh.  For 
sending  it  to  market  they  are  cut  up  in  billets  or  junks, 
and  sometimes  the  bark  and  white  sap  are  chipped  off, 
which  is  called  chipt  Logwood. 

The  most  internal  part  of  the  wood,  which  is  at  first 
red,  becomes  black  some  time  after  the  felling,  and  it  is 


I 


219 

only  itn*  inner  part  of  the  tree  that  yields  a  black  and  vi¬ 
olet  colour. 

The  taste  for  these  colours,  which  was  perhaps  more  ge¬ 
neral  two  centuries  ago  than  it  is  at  present,  procured  a 
considerable  vent  for  this  valuable  wood.  This  trade  was 
entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards  till  the  settlement 
of  the  British  at  Jamaica.  Among  the  number  of  pirates 
who  were  continually  coming  from  this  island,  several 
went  to  cruise  in  the  bays  of  Campeachy  and  Honduras, 
and  on  the  coasts  of  Jucatan,  to  intercept  the  vessels  that 
sailed  there.  These  plunderers  were  so  little  acquainted 
with  the  value  of  Logwood,  that  when  they  found  barks  la¬ 
den  with  it,  they  took  away  nothing  but  the  iron  uten¬ 
sils.  One  of  them  having  carried  off  a  large  vessel  entire¬ 
ly  loaded  with  Logwood,  brought  it  into  the  Thames,  de¬ 
signing  to  equip  it  as  a  privateer,  when  contrary  to  his  ex¬ 
pectation,  he  sold  at  a  very  high  price,  the  wood  which 
he  had  thought  to  be  of  so  little  value,  that  he  had  always 
burnt  it  as  fire  wood  during  the  voyage.  After  this  disco¬ 
very,  the  pirates  who  were  not  successful  at  sea,  never 
failed  to  repair  to  the  river  of  Champeton,  in  the  Bay  of 
Campeachy,  where  they  took  on  board  the  piles  of  wood 
which  were  always  found  ranged  on  the  shore.  The  peace 
between  England  and  Spain  having  put  a  stop  to  the  depre¬ 
dations  of  these  pirates,  they  went  to  settle  between  Ta¬ 
basco  and  the  river  Champeton,  about  Lake  Triste,  and 
in  Beef  island.  In  1675  their  numbers  amounted  to  two 
hundred  and  sixty.  Being  driven  from  here  by  the  Spa¬ 
niards,  they  took  refuge  in  the  Bay  of  Honduras,  where 
they  were  joined  by  some  freebooters  of  North  America.. 
In  process  of  time  they  increased  to  fifteen  hundred  men, 
and  they  sold  the  Logwood  which  they  cut  to  the  people  of 
Jamaica,  and  to  the  English  colonies  in  North  America. 
This  commerce,  till  then  carried  on  by  smugglers,  and 
which  occasioned  much  clamour,  became  lawful  in  1763. 
The  liberty  of  cutting  Logwood  was  secured  to  Great 
Britain,  but  she  was  not  permitted  to  raise  forts. 

The  wood  which  grows  upon  the  dry  soil  at  Campeachy, 
is  much  superior  to  that  which  is  cut  in  the  marshes  of 
Honduras.  The  growth  of  Jamaica  is  inferior  to  either 
of  them. 

Logwood  is  used  in  great  quantities  for  dying  purple, 
but  especially  black  colours.  It  is  the  material  which  adds 


220 


blackness  to  the  vitriol  and  gallbrown,  and  this  black  dye* 
though  not  of  the  most  durable  kind,  is  the  tnost  com¬ 
mon. 

The  Logwood  tree,  seeds  in  April.  The  season  for 
sowing  the  seed  should  not  be  too  wet,  otherwise  it  will 
rot  in  the  ground.  It  was  first  propagated  in  the  island 
of  Jamaica,  in  the  year  1715,  from  some  seed  brought 
from  the  Bay  of  Campeachy,  and  there  are  now  such  quan¬ 
tities  of  it  growing  wild  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Savannah 
la  Mar,  as  to  incommode  the  landholders  extremely.  The 
growth  of  this  tree  is  so  quick,  that  it  will  rise  in  proper 
soils,  to  the  height  of  ten  feet  in  three  years. 

Logwood  ought  to  be  chosen  in  the  largest,  thickest 
pieces,  sound,  and  of  a  deep  red  colour. 


LONG  PEPPER;  see  Pepper . 


LUCERNE  SEED. 


F.  Graine  de  Lucerne. 

G.  Luzerne  Saartien. 

D.  Luzerne  zaad . 

1.  Semenza  di  Lucerna. 


S.  Semilla  de  Jlfalsa. 


P.  Sememe  de  Luzerna. 
DA.  Lucernefro . 

S  W .  L  ucernefr  ‘6 . 


Lucerne  is  a  plant  frequently  cultivated  in  the  manner 
of  clover.  Its  leaves  like  the  latter  grow  three  at  a  joint, 
its  stalks  are  eredl,  and  after  mowing,  immediately  spring 
up  again  from  the  stubble.  It  is  made  into  hay  in  the 
same  manner  as  saint-foin,  but  should  be  mowed  before  it 
flowers.  It  makes  the  sweetest,  and  most  fattening  food 
in  the  world  for  cattle. 


LUMP-LAC;  see  Lac. 


221 


MACE. 


F.  Macis,  Fleur  de  Mu  scads. 

G.  Mu^katbluths. 

D.  Foelie ,  Foely,  Muse  act- 
bloom . 

I.  Mace. 

S.  Macio. 


P.  Macis ,  Flor  dc  nox  mos- 
cada. 

DA.  Muskatblomer. 

SW.  Muskcttblcmma. 

POL.  Muskatc'wy  kwiat, 

R.  Muskatnoi  xnvet. 

L.  Macis . 


Mace  is  a  fleshy  and  fatty  membranous  substance,  which 
divides  into  filaments,  laying  under  the  green  and  cover¬ 
ing  the  ligneous  shell  of  the  nutmeg.  When  carefully 
taken  off  with  a  small  knife,  it  has  at  first  a  beautiful  red, 
but  afterwards  a  darkish  colour;  it  is  then  laid  to  dry  in 
the  sun  for  the  space  of  a  day,  and  afterwards  removed  to 
a  place  less  exposed  to  his  rays,  where  it  remains  for  eight 
days,  that  it  may  soften  a  little.  They  then  moisten  it 
with  sea  water,  to  prevent  it  from  drying  too  much,  or 
from  loosing  its  oil.  It  is  last  of  all  put  into  small  bags, 
and  squeezed  very  close.  The  Banda  isles  produce  about 
100,000  lbs.  of  Mace. 

The  Mace  has  the  same  properties  with  the  nutmeg, 
being  of  an  astringent,  drying  nature.  An  oil  is  also  ex¬ 
tracted  from  Mace,  of  various  uses  in  medicine. 


MADDER. 


F.  Garance. 

G.  Krapp,  Farberrothe. 
D.  Mee,  Me  e  krap,  Krap. 
I.  Rob  hi. 

S.  Gratiza,  Rubia • 

P.  Granca ,  Ruiva. 


DA.  Krap. 

SW.  Krapp. 

POL.  Marxaua. 

R.  Mariona,  Krap. 
L.  Rubia  iinctorum. 


Madder  is  a  plant  with  rough  narrow  leaves  set  in  form 
of  a  star  at  the  joints  of  the  stalk.  The  root,  which  is 


the  only  part  made  use  of,  is  long,  slender,  of  a  red  co¬ 
lour,  both  on  the  outside  and  within,  excepting  a  whitish 
pith  which  runs  along  the  middle. 

For  cultivating  this  plant  the  ground  is  ploughed  deep 
in  autumn,  and  again  in  March:  and  then  laid  up  in  ridges, 
eighteen  inches  asunder,  and  about  a  foot  high.  About 
the  beginning  of  April  they  open  the  ground  where  old 
roots  are  planted,  and  take  off  all  the  side  shoots:  which 
extend  themselves  horizontally,  these  they  transplant  im¬ 
mediately  upon  the  new  ridges;  at  about  a  foot  distance, 
where  they  remain  two  seasons;  and  at  Michaelmas,  when 
the  tops  of  the  plants  are  decayed,  they  take  up  the  roots. 

It  is  to  be  observed,  that  this  method  of  planting  in  ridges 
is  only  necessary  in  wet  land,  and  that  the  rows  are  some¬ 
times  planted  three  feet,  and  the  plants  in  the  rows  eigh¬ 
teen  inches  asunder.  If  all  the  horizontal  roots  are  destroy¬ 
ed  from  time  to  time,  it  will  cause  the  large,  downright 
roots  to  be  much  bigger,  in  which  the  goodness  of  this 
commodity  chiefly  consists. 

After  the  Madder  roots  are  taken  up  they  are  kiln  dried, 
and  then  reduced  to  powder,  by  a  mill.  Previous  to  the 
grinding  they  are  carefully  assorted;  the  finest  roots  peeled 
make  what  is  called  Crop,  or  fine  Madder  from  the  Ger¬ 
man  Krap  ;  good  roots  not  peeled  make  the  Ombro,  un- 
braubt;  Gamene  or  Gemeine  are  all  the  inferior  small  roots ; 
the  Mulls  consist  of  the  refuse,  peelings,  &c. 

Madder  gives  out  its  colour  both  to  water  and  rectified 
spirit:  the  watery  tincture  is  of  a  dark  dull  red;  the  spiri¬ 
tuous  of  a  deep  bright  one.  It  imparts  to  woollen  cloth, 
prepared  with  alum  and  tartar,  a  very  durable,  though  not 
a  very  beautiful  red  dye.  j\s  it  is  the  cheapest  of  all  the 
red  drugs  that  give  a  durable  colour,  it  is  the  principal  one 
commonly  made  use  of  for  ordinary  stuffs.  Sometimes  its 
dye  is  heightened  by  the  addition,  of  brazilwood,  and 
sometimes  it  is  employed  in  conjunction  with  the  dearer 
reds,  as  cochineal;  for  demi-scarlets,  and  demi-crimsons. 

The  rubia  peregrina,  or  Turkey  Madder  root,  is  prin¬ 
cipally  cultivated  about  Smyrna.  It  is  always  imported  in 
its  original  state,  as  a  root.  Our  dyers  have  tried  to  order 
the  Dutch  Madder  from  abroad,  in  the  same  state,  but 
were  not  able  to  use  it. 

The  fine  quality  of  Madder  is  distinguished  by  its  being 
of  a  bright,  lively,  light  colour,  well  ground,  without  any 


223 


coarse  parts,  proceeding  from  the  peelings.  Fresh  is  al¬ 
ways  more  valuable  than  old  Madder.  It  should  be  kept 
close,  to  prevent  the  access  of  air,  as  its  virtues  evaporate 
when  exposed. 

Madder  was  formerly  cultivated  among  us:  but  we 
are  now  entirely  supplied  with  it  from  Holland,  Germany, 
and  France. 


V'WjlQlh4NY. 


F.  Bois  d*  Jcajou y  Bois  de 

M ah  agony . 

G.  Mahagonienholz . 

D.  Mahognyhout . 


1,  Legno  mogano , 

S.  Caoha ,  Caobana . 
DA.  Mahagoni . 

SW.  Mahagony. 


The  swietenia  mahagoni,  or  Mahogany  tree,  is  a  native 
of  the  warmest  parts  of  America,  and  grows  also  in  the 
island  of  Cuba,  Jamaica,  Hispaniola,  and  the  Bahama 
islands.  It  abounded  formerly  in  the  low  lands  of  Ja¬ 
maica,  but  it  is  now  found  only  on  high  hills,  and  places 
difficult  of  access. 

This  tree  grows  tall  and  straight,  rising  often  sixty  feet 
from  the  spur  to  the  limbs;  and  is  usually  four  feet  in  di¬ 
ameter.  The  foliage  is  a  beautiful  deep  green,  and  the  ap¬ 
pearance  made  by  the  whole  tree  so  elegant,  that  none 
could  be  more  ornamental  for  an  avenue.  The  flowers 
are  of  a  reddish  or  saffron  colour;  and  the  fruit  of  an 
oval  form,  about  the  size  of  a  turkey’s  egg.  Some  of  them 
have  reached  to  a  monstrous  size,  exceeding  one  hundred 
feet  in  height.  One  was  cut  about  thirty  years  since  in 
St.  Elizabeth’s  in  Jamaica,  which  measured  twelve  feet  in 
diameter,  and  cleared  to  the  proprietor  £.500  currency. 
In  felling  these  trees  the  most  beautiful  part  is  commonly 
left  behind.  The  negro  workmen  raise  a  scaffolding  of 
four  or  five  feet  elevation  from  the  ground,  and  hack  up 
the  trunk,  which  they  cut  up  into  balks.  The  part  be¬ 
low  Extending  to  the  root  is  not  only  of  larger  diameter, 
but  of  a  closer  texture  than  the  other  parts,  most  elegantly 
diversified  with  shades  or  clouds,  or  dotted  like  ermine, 
with  black  spots;  it  takes  the  highest  polish,  with  a  singu¬ 
lar  lustre.  This  part  is  only  to  be  come  at  by  digging  be¬ 
low  the  spur,  to  the  depth  of  two  or  three  feet,  and  cut¬ 
ting  it  through;  which  is  so  laborious  an  operation  that 


224? 


few  attempt  it,  except  they  are  uncommonly  curious  in 
the  choice  of  their  wood,  or  to  serve  a  particular  order. 

The  mahogany  tree  thrives  in  most  soils,  but  varies  in 
texture  and  grain,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil. 
On  rocks  it  is  of  a  smaller  size,  but  very  hard  and  weighty, 
and  of  a  close  grain,  and  beautifully  shaded;  while  the 
produce  of  the  low  and  richer  lands,  is  observed  to  be 
more  light  and  porous,  of  a  paler  colour  and  open  grain; 
and  that  of  mixed  soils  to  hold  a  medium  between  both. 
This  constitutes  the  difference  between  the  Jamaica  wood, 
and  that  which  is  collected  from  the  coast  of  Cuba  and 
the  Spanish  Main,  the  former  is  mostly  found  on  rocky 
eminences;  the  latter  is  cut  in  swampy  soils  near  the  sea 
coast.  The  superior  value  of  the  Jamaica  wood,  for  beauty 
of  colouring,  firmness,  and  durability,  may  therefore  be 
easily  accounted  for;  but  as  a  large  quantity  of  balks  and 
planks  is  brought  from  the  Spanish  American  coasts  to 
Jamaica,  to  be  shipped  from  thence  to  Great  Britain,  the 
dealers  are  apt  to  confound  all  under  the  name  of  Jamaica 
wood,  which  in  some  measure  hurts  the  credit  of  this 
staple  production. 

This  wood  is  generally  hard,  takes  a  fine  polish,  and  is 
found  to  answer  better  than  any  other  sort,  in  all  kinds 
of  cabinet  ware.  It  is  a  very  strong  timber,  and  was  fre¬ 
quently  used  as  such  in  Jamaica,,  in  former  times.  It  is 
said  to  be  used  sometimes  in  ship  building;  a  purpose  for 
which  it  would  be  remarkably  adapted  if  not  too  costly: 
being  very  durable,  capable  of  resisting  gun  shots,  and 
burying  the  shots  without  splintering. 

It  was  not  till  the  commencement  of  the  last  century 
that  Mahogany  was  imported  into  England,  with  the  view 
of  making  household  furniture  of  it.  The  carpenters  in 
the  beginning  found  this  wood  much  too  hard  for  their 
tools,  and  it  was  some  time,  before  this  difficulty  wa$ 
overcome. 

MAI£E;  see  Indian  Corn. 

MALACHITE;  see  Copper. 

MANHEIM  GOLD ;  see  Copper. 


225 


MANNA. 


jF.  Marine 
G.  Manna . 

D.  Manna. 

I.  Manna. 

S.  Manat  Mangla ,  AJman - 
gre. 


P.  Manna . 
DA.  Manna . 
SW.  Manna . 
POL.  Manna, 
R.  Manna. 

L.  Manna. 


Manna  is  a  gummous  substance  obtained  from  the  fraxi- 
mis  ornus,  a  species  of  ash  tree  in  the  southern  parts  of 
Europe,  particularly  in  Calabria  and  Sicily. 

Towards  the  end  of  July,  or  about  the  beginning  of 
August,  during  the  season  of  the  greatest  heat,  they  make 
an  incision  in  the  bark,  near  to  the  root  of  the  tree.  A 
thick  whitish  liquor  is  discharged  from  the  wound  which 
hardens  in  the  sun;  when  it  is  carefully  taken  off,  and 
gathered  into  chests.  They  renew  these  incisions  every 
day  during  the  season,  observing  however,  only  to  round 
one  side  of  the  tree,  the  other  side  they  reserve  for  the 
summer  following.  These  trees  never  arrive  at  any  con¬ 
siderable  size  on  account  of  their  annual  bleedings;  but 
they  are  said  to  last  a  century,  yielding  Manna.  Each 
tree  produces  about  half  a  pound  of  gum  a  year. 

The  best  sort  of  Manna  is  in  oblong  pieces  or  flakes, 
moderately  dry,  friable,  very  light,  of  a  whitish  or  pale 
yellow  colour,  and  in  some  degree  transparent.  The  in¬ 
ferior  kinds  are  moist,  undtuous,  and  brown. 

All  Manna  in  Calabria  belongs  to  the  king,  who  gives 
it  in  farm  to  a  set  of  contractors.  To  gather  it,  a  certain 
number  of  countrymen  are  furnished  by  the  feudatory, 
whose  scanty  wages  are  a  poor  compensation  for  this  in¬ 
voluntary  service.  The  peasants  are  punished  with  the 
utmost  severity  if  dete&ed  in  burning,  destroying,  or  da- 
maging  any  of  these  trees,  that  cause  to  them  so  much 
vexation ;  and  are  sent  to  prison  if  the  smallest  quantity 
of  the  juice  be  found  in  their  houses.  They  may  eat  as 
much  as  they  please  in  the  woods,  and  most  of  them  take 
this  physic  once  a  year. 

The  best,  and  the  greatest  quantity  of  Manna  comes 
from  the  island  of  Sicily.  It  consists  of  two  sorts,  the  one 
called  flakey,  generally  of  more  than  double  the  value  of 
F  f 


226 


the  other,  called  Manna  in  sorts.  The  principal  places 
where  this  drug  is  cohered  in  Sicily  are  Cinesi  and  Ge- 
raci.  The  denomination  of  Cinesi  Manna  comprehends, 
not  only  the  produce  of  Cinesi,  but  also  of  the  villages 
of  Capace,  Carini,  Favoretta,  &c.  so  also  Geraci  Manna 
means,  not  only  the  Manna  collected  at  Geraci,  but  at 
Castelbuono,  Cefalu,  and  S°.  Mauro. 

The  best  flakey  Manna  comes  from  Cinesi  and  Capace; 
the  very  best  from  Cinesi. 

They  reckon  that  the  four  villages  of  Cinesi,  Capace, 
Carini,  and  Favoretta,  produce  on  an  average,  above  1,400 
Sicilian  Cantars  of  Marina,  whereof  four  fifths  are  in  sorts, 
and  the  rest  flakey.  The  four  villages  of  Geraci,  Castel- 
buono,  Cefalu,  and  S°.  Mauro,  are  reckoned  to  produce 
annually  about  one  thousand  Cantars  of  Manna  in  sorts, 
and  twenty-five  to  thirty  Cantars  flakes.  A  Sicilian  Can- 
tar  is  equal  to  1961b.  Avoirdupois.  The  whole  crop  of 
Sicily  Manna  is  generally  bought  by  the  merchants  at  Pa¬ 
lermo,  at  the  harvest,  which  begins  in  August  and  ends 
in  October.  The  chief  market  for  flakey  Manna  is  at 
Leghorn.  The  Manna  in  sorts  generally  goes  to  Mar¬ 
seilles,  or  the  Levant. 

Tolpha  Manna  is  inferior  in  value  to  the  flakey,  but 
more  valuable  than  Manna  in  sorts.  It  bears  its  name  from 
Tolpha,  a  place  in  the  territory  of  the  Pope. 

Manna,  in  medicine,  proves  a  gentle  laxative,  operating 
with  great  mildness. 


MARBLE. 


DA.  Marmor. 
SVV.  Marmor. 
POL  Mai  •mar. 
R.  Marmor. 


F.  Marbre. 

G.  Marmor . 
.D.  Mariner. 
I.  Marmo. 

S.  Mar  mol. 


L  Marmor. 


P.  Mar  more. 

Marble  is  a  kind  of  stone,  found  in  great  masses,  and 
dug  out  of  pits  or  quarries.  It  is  of  so  hard,  compact,  and 
fine  a  texture,  as  readily  to  take  a  beautiful  polish,  and 
much  used  in  ornaments  of  buildings;  as  columns,  statue*, 
altars,  tombs,  chimney  pieces,  tables,  and  the  like. 


2'2Y 


There  are  infinite  numbers  of  different  kinds  of  Marble 
Some  are  of  one  simple  colour,  as  white,  or  black;  others 
variegated  with  stains,  clouds,  waves,  and  veins:  but  all 
opaque,  excepting  the  white,  which  cut  into  thin  pieces 
becomes  transparent. 

Some  under  the  genus  of  Marble  comprehend  also  por¬ 
phyry,  granate,  and  alabaster. 

Marble  is  found  in  consideVable  quantities  in  most  of  the 
mountainous  parts  of  Europe.  Derbyshire  is  that  county 
of  England  most  abounding  in  this  article.  Near  Kemlyn 
bay,  in  the  island  of  Anglesey,  there  is  a  quarry  of  beau¬ 
tiful  Marble,  called  Verde  di  Corsica,  being  common  to 
this  place,  some  parts  of  Italy,  and  Corsica.  Its  colours 
are  green,  black,  white,  and  dull  purple,  irregularly  dis¬ 
posed.  Italy  is  that  part  of  Europe  which  produces  the 
most  valuable  Marble,  and  in  which  its  exportation  makes 
a  considerable  branch  of  foreign  commerce.  The  black 
and  the  milk  white  Marble  coming  from  Carara,  a  town 
in  the  Duchy  of  Massa,  are  particularly  esteemed. 

Bruce  gives  us  a  very  particular  account  of  the  source 
from  whence  Were  derived  those  vast  calamities  of  Marble, 
granite,  See.  found  in  Egypt.  These  he  discovered  on  his 
journey  from  Kenne  to  Cosseir,  on  the  Red  Sea.  At 
Hamra  the  porphyry  mountains  and  quarries  begin,  in  the 
latitude  of  nearly  twenty- four  degrees,  continuing  alpng 
the  coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  to  about  22°  30',  when  they  are 
succeeded  by  Marble  mountains;  these  again  by  others 
of  alabaster,  and  these  last  by  basaltic  mountains;  some 
of  the  mountains  appearing  to  be  composed  entirely  of  red, 
and  others  of  green  Marble.  Near  to  Cosseir  he  discovered 
the  quarries  from  whence  the  Ancients  obtained  those 
immense  quantities  of  Marble  with  which  they  construfted 
so  many  wonderful  works.  In  four  days,  during  which 
our  author  travelled,  he  says,  that  he  had  passed  more 
Marble,  granite,  porphyry,  and  jasper,  than  would  build 
Rome,  Athens,  Corinth,  Syracuse,  Memphis,  Alexandria, 
and  half  a  dozen  such  cities.  The  whole  is  situated  on  a 
ridge,  with  a  descent  to  the  east  and  west,  by  which  means 
it  might  easily  be  conveyed  either  to  the  Nile  or  Red 
Sea. 


MA8TICH. 


F.  Mastic. 

G.  Mastix. 

D.  Mastik. 

I .  Mastice. 

S.  Almastiga, 
P.  Almacega. 


Alntaciga, 


DA.  Mastix. 
SW.  Mastix. 

1  OL.  Mastyks , 
R.  Mastika. 

L.  Mastix. 


Mastich,  or  gum  Mastic,  is  gathered  from  the  pistaci* 
orientalis,  or  true  Mastich  tree  of  the  Levant.  The  bark 
of  the  tree  is  brown;  the  leaves  are  composed  of  two  or 
three  pair  of  spear-shaped  lobes,  terminated  by  an  odd 
one.  These  turn  of  a  brownish  colour  towards  autumn,, 
but  continue  all  the  year. 

This  gum  is  in  small  granules,  being  white,  clear,  and 
sweet,  if  good*,  though  age  makes  it  turn  yellowish.  There 
is  also  a  kind  of  black  Mastich,  brought  from  Egypt,  which 
serves  to  sophisticate  camphor. 

Mastich  is  chiefly  the  product  of  Chios,  an  island  in  the 
Turkish  Archipelago  ;  where  the  trees  that  yield  it  are 
cultivated  with  as  much  care  as  the  vines;  and  it  brings 
in  a  yearly  revenue  of  about  .£.2000  sterling  to  the  Grand 
Seignior. 

Mastich  is  temperate  in  heat,  and  of  a  dry  binding 
quality.  It  is  used  in  medicine,  and  jewellers  mix  it  with 
turpentine  and  black  ivory,  and  lay  it  under  their  diamonds' 
to  give  them  a  lustre. 


MERCURY ;  see  Quicksilver, 


MILLET. 


■F.  Millet ,  Mil. 

G.  Hirse. 

D,  Geers t,  Geers ,  Gierst. 
I.  Miglio ,  Panicastrello. 
S.  Mijo. 

P.  Milho,  Painfo. 


DA.  Hirse. 

SW.  Hirs. 

POL.  Prose. 

R.  Proszo. 

L.  Milium,  Panicum  mill  a- 


Millet  is  -a  native  of  India,  but  is  now  commonly  culti¬ 
vated  in  many  parts  of  Europe  as  an  excellent  grain.  It 


'229 


rises  with  a  reedlike  stalk  three  or  four  feet  high.  Th£ 
top  of  the  stalk  is  terminated  by  a  large  loose  panicle, 
which  hangs  on  one  side,  having  a  chaffy  flower,  which 
is  succeeded  by  a  small  round  seed.  There  are  two  varie¬ 
ties,  one  with  white,  and  the  other  with  black  seeds*,  but 
they  do  not  differ  in  any  other  particular.  This  plant  is 
greatly  cultivated  in  the  oriental  countries  from  whence  it 
is  annually  brought  to  us.  It  is  seldom  cultivated  in  Bri¬ 
tain  but  in  small  gardens.  It  is  used  as  an  ingredient  in 
puddings,  and  is  by  some  people  greatly  esteemed.  In 
this  country  the  seeds  ripen  in  August,  when  the  plant 
must  be  cut  down,  and  the  seeds  beaten  out.  If  not  pro¬ 
tected  from  birds,  they  will  devour  it  is  as  soon  as  it  be¬ 
gins  to  ripen. 

MINIUM;  see  Red  Lend. 


MOHAIR, 

F.  Moire. 

G.  Mohr ,  Moor. 

D.  Mpor. 

I.  Moirro. 

S.  Mue,  Muer . 


MOREEN. 

P.  Chamalote ,  Melania. 
DA.  Moor. 

SW.  Moire. 

POL.  Mora. 

R.  Obur • 


The  Mohair  goats  are  a  variety  of  the  common  goats, 
being  famous  for  their  soft  and  silver  white  hairs,  the  like 
of  which  are  not  to  be  found  in  any  place  but  Angora. 
This  hair  is  commonly  carried  ready  spun  to  Europe,  and 
being  there  woven  into  camlets  and  other  manufactures, 
particularly  by  the  English,  is  afterwards  exported  to  all 
parts  of  the  world,  and  even  to  those,  whence  the  yarn 
was  originally  brought. 


MEL  ASSES. 


F.  Syr  op  de  Sucre ,  Melasses. 

G.  Syrup. 

D.  Syroop. 

I .  Miclazzo  di  zucchero. 

S.  Miei  de  azucar ,  Chancaca. 


P.  Me  las  so,  Assuear  liquido. 
DA.  Sirup. 

SW.  Sirap. 

R.  Pat  oka  sacharnaja. 


Molasses,  Molosses,  or  Melasses,  are  that  gross  fluid 
matter  remaining  of  sugar  after  refining ;  atid  which  no 


230 

boiling  will  bring  to  a  consistence  more  solid  than  that  of 
syrup.  ' 

Melasses  are  much  used  on  the  continent  for  the  pre¬ 
paration  of  tobacco,  and  also  among  poor  people  instead 
of  sugar. 

In  England  Melasses  are  chiefly  used  for  the  purport  of 
distilling  a  spirit  from  it,  which  is  dearer  and  superior  to 
malt  spirits. 


MOTHER  OF  PEARL. 


F.  Nacre . 

G.  Perlmutter. 

D.  Paarlemoer. 

I.  Madreperla . 

S.  Madre  de  Perlas ,  Concha 
de  Nacar. 

P.  Madreperola . 


DA.  Perlemor ,  Perlamoder , 
SW.  Perlmo. 

POL  Macica  per  ionic  a. 

R.  Shemtschufhnaja,  rake- 
wina. 

L.  Mater  perl  arum. 


Mother  of  Pearl  is  the  shell  of  the  mytilus  margariti- 
ferus,  or  pearl-bearing  muscle.  It  has  the  shell  compressed 
and  flat,  nearly  orbicular,  the  base  transverse,  and  imbri¬ 
cated  with  dentated  coats.  It  dwells  in  the  ocean  of  either 
Indies.  On  the  inside  it  is  exquisitely  polished,  and  of 
the  whiteness  and  water  of  pearl  itself.  It  has  also  the 
same  lustre  on  the  outside  after  the  external  laminae  have 
been  taken  off  by  aquafortis  and  the  lapidary’s  mill. 

Mother  of  pearl  is  used  in  inlaid  works,  and  in  several 
toys,  &e. 


MOUNTAIN  BLUE;  see  Copper. 


MOUNTAIN  GREEN;  see  Copper 


231 


MUSK. 


F.  Muse • 

G.  Bisam. 
D.  Muskus. 
1.  Muschio. 
S.  Almizele. 
P.  J l?ni scar . 


DA.  Desmer. 
SW.  Desman. 
POL.  Pizmo. 
R.  Muscus. 

L.  Moschus. 


Musk  is  a  very  strong  scented  substance,  found  under 
the  belly  of  the  male,  of  a  species  of  goat,  called  moschus 
mosciferus.  After  killing  it  the  peasants  cut  off  the  bag 
containing  the  Musk.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a  hen’s  egg, 
and  is  situated  nearer  to  the  organs  of  generation  than  the 
navel.  In  its  original  state  it  is  nothing  more  than  putrid 
blood,  which  coagulates  in  this  bag.  The  largest  bladder 
cannot  furnish  above  half  an  ounce  of  Musk,  generally  but 
little  more  than  a  quarter  of  an  ounce. 

Musk  affords  such  a  strong  smell,  that  it  becomes  dis¬ 
agreeable  if  not  kept  at  a  distance,  or  weakened  by  the 
admixture  of  other  substances.  It  is  likewise  so  fixed  and 
permanent,  that  at  the  end  of  several  years  it  seems  to 
have  lost  no  part  of  its  a&ivity.  When  it  comes  to  us 
it  is  dry  with  a  kind  of  un£tuosity,  of  a  dark  reddish  brown, 
or  rusty  blackish  colour,  in  small  round  grains,  with  very 
few  hard  black  clots,  and  perfectly  free  from  any  sandy 
or  other  visible  foreign  matter.  If  chewed  and  rubbed 
with  a  knife  on  paper  it  looks  smooth,  bright,  yellowish, 
and  is  free  from  bitterness.  Laid  on  a  red-hot  iron  it 
catches  flame,  and  burns  almost  entirely  away,  leaving 
only  an  exceeding  small  quantity  of  light  greyish  ashes: 
if  any  earthy  substances  have  been  mixed  with  the  Musk, 
the  quantity  of  the  residuum  will  readily  discover  them. 

The  best  and  greatest  quantities  of  Musk  come  from 
Thibet,  from  whence  they  are  carried  for  sale  to  Patna, 
the  chief  town  of  Bengal,  That  which  is  produced  in  Si¬ 
beria  is  inferior,  having  somewhat  of  the  flavour  of  castor. 
It  seems  to  be  the  produce  of  the  Musquash  or  Musk-rat, 
a  diminutive  of  the  beaver,  and  is  also  to  be  met  with  in 
North  America. 

Musk,  besides  its  use  as  a  perfume,  is  esteemed  a  medi¬ 
cine  of  great  efficacy. 


1 


232 


MUSTARD  SEED. 


F.  Gr uine  de  Moutarde. 

G.  Senfsaat . 


DA.  Senep. 

SVV.  Senap . 

POL  Gorrozyka. 


D.  Mosferd. 

J.  Mostarday  Senapa. 
S.  Mg  stasia. 


R.  Gortscbiza. 
L.  Sinapis. 


P.  Most  ar da. 

Mustard  is  a  plant  of  which  there  are  seventeen  species, 
three  of  which  are  natives  of  Great  Britain;  the  sinapis 
alba,  nigra,  and  arvensis. 

The  alba,  or  white  Mustard,  which  is  frequently  culti¬ 
vated  as  a  sallad  herb  for  winter  and  spring  use,  produces 
white  seeds,  used  for  making  the  sauce  called  mustard. 

The  nigra,  or  common  Mustard,  which  is  frequently 
found  growing  naturally,  but  is  also  cultivated  in  the  fields 
for  its  brown  seed. 

The  arvensis  grows  naturally  on  arable  land  in  many 
parts  of  Great  Britain.  The  seed  of  this  is  commonly  sold 
under  the  title  of  Durham  Mustard-seed. 

The  white  and  brown  Mustard-seed  is  mostly  imported 
from  Holland,  though  always  inferior  to  the  English  growth. 
Brown  seed  is  higher  in  value  than  the  white,  and  is  chiefly 
used  for  pickling. 


MYRRH,  GUM  MYRRI}. 


P.  Mirra . 


F.  Myrrbe. 

G.  Myrrhe  a 
D.  Mirrhe . 
J.  Mirra , 

8  Mirra . 


DA.  Myrre- 
SW.  Myrha. 
POL.  Mirra , 
L.  Myrrha . 


Myrrh  is  a  gummy  resinous,  concrete  juice,  obtained 
from  an  oriental  tree,  of  which  we  have  as  yet  no  certain 
account.  It  is  a  native  of  Abexim  in  Ethiopia,  and  grows 
besides  on  the  eastern  shores  of  Arabia  Felix,  and  on  the 
coasts  of  the  Indian  ocean. 

The  best  Gum  Myrrh  is  somewhat  transparent,  friable, 
in  some  degree  unctuous  to  the  touch,  of  an  uniform 
brownish,  or  reddish  yellow  colour,  a  moderately  strong 


233 


not  disagreeable  smell,  and  a  slightly  pungent,  very  bitte'r 
taste.  The  inferior  sorts  are  of  a  red-blackish,  or  black 
earthy  colour,  solid,  and  heavy.  There  are  sometimes 
found  among  it,  hard,  shining  pieces,  of  a  pale  yellowish 
colour,  resembling  gum  urabic,  of  no  taste  and  smell*, 
sometimes  masses  of  bdellium,  darker  coloured,  and  dif¬ 
fering  from  Myrrh  both  in  taste  and  smell;  sometimes  an 
unctuous  gummy  resin,  of  a  moderately  strong,  somewhat 
ungrateful  smell,  and  a  bitterish  very  durable  taste,  ob¬ 
viously  different  from  those  of  bdellium  and  Myrrh.  On 
account  of  these  and  other  adulterations  great  care  is  re¬ 
quisite  in  the  choice  of  this  drug. 

To  have  the  first  and  most  perfeft  kind  of  Myrrh,  a 
young  vigorous  tree  is  selected,  free  from  moss  or  any 
other  plant  adhering  to  the  bark,  and  a  deep  incision  made 
with  a  hatchet  above  the  first  large  branches.  What  runs 
from  this  wound  the  first  year  is  Myrrh  of  the  first  growth, 
and  never  plentiful.  This  operation  is  performed  some 
time  after  the  rains  have  ceased.  At  each  return  of  the 
season  the  sap  continues  to  run  in  the  course  to  which  it 
has  been  accustomed;  but  by  the  second  year  the  tree 
begins  to  rot  at  the  place  of  the  incision,  so  that  the  Myrrh 
is  of  a  secondary  quality.  That  obtained  from  incisions 
near  the  roots,  and  in  the  trunks  of  old  trees,  is  also  of 
an  inferior  quality. 

Grand  Cairo  is  the  great  staple  place  for  the  Myrrh 
trade;  but  by  far  more  considerable  quantities  are  brought 
from  Arabia  Felix  than  from  Ethiopia  and  Abyssinia;  and 
the  quality  of  the  latter,  distinguished  also  by  the  name 
of  Troglodite  Myrrh,  was  always  more  valued. 

The  medical  effects  of  this  aromatic  bitter  are  to  warm 
and  to  strengthen.  It  seems  now  to  be  less  used  than  in 
former  times. 


NICARAGUA  WOOD. 


I?.  Bois  de  Sang ,  Bois  de  Ni- 


S.  Palo  de  sangre . 
P.  Pdo  sanguinbo. 
DA.  Blodtrae . 
SW.  Blodtrdd. 


carague . 

G.  Blutholz,  Nikaragaholz . 
D.  Bloedhout. 

J.  Legno  sanguigno . 


Nicaragua  wood  is  a  kind  of  dying  wood,  of  a  very 
bright,  red  colour;  brought  from  Nicaragua,  a  province 
in  the  Spanish  America. 


NITRE ;  see  Saltpetre „ 


NUTMEGS. 


P.  Noz  moscada. 

DA.  Muskadnodder. 

SW.  Muskot. 

POL.  Muszato'wa  gall  a. 
R.  Muskatniie  oresebki. 

L.  Nux  mosebata. 


I.  Noel  muscade . 
S.  Nuez  ?n  us  cad  a. 


The  m^ristica  moschata,  or  Nutmeg  tree,  in  its  size 
and  foliage  resembles  the  pear  tree:  it  attains  the  height 
of  30  feet,  producing  numerous  branches,  which  rise  to¬ 
gether  in  stor  ies:  the  bark  of  the  trunk  is  of  a  reddish 
brown,  but  that  of  the  young  branches  of  a  bright  green 
colour,  the  leaves  are  nearly  eliptical,  pointed,  undulated, 
on  the  upper  side  of  a  bright  green,  on  the  under  whitish. 
The  flowers  are  small,  and  male  and  female  upon  separate 
trees;  they  are  succeeded  by  the  fruit,  which  is  covered 
with  an  external  green  substance,  similar  in  its  form  to 
that  of  the  common  walnut,  but  more  fleshy  and  full  of 
juice.  This  external  covering,  when  grown  ripe,  acquires 


235 


a  deep  yellow  colour,  and  as  it  opens,  discovers  an  inter¬ 
nal  membranous  coat,  of  a  beautiful  red  colour,  which  di¬ 
vides  into  filaments,  and  is  known  by  the  name  of  mace . 
This  lies  immediately  over  the  thin  and  brittle  shell  that 
encloses  the  Nutmeg.  It  is  now  necessary  to  gather  the 
fruit,  otherwise  the  mace  would  get  loose,  and  the  Nut¬ 
meg  would  lose  that  oil  which  preserves  it,  and  in  which 
its  excellence  consists. 

It  is  nine  months  before  the  fruit  comes  to  perfection. 
After  it  is  gathered  the  outer  rind  is  stripped  off.  The 
nuts  are  then  carried  home,  and  the  mace  carefully  taken 
off  with  a  small  knife,  after  which  they  are  for  three 
days  exposed  to  the  sun,  and  then  dried  before  a  fire,  till 
they  emit  a  sound  when  they  are  shaken;  they  then  beat 
them  with  small  sticks,  in  order  to  remove  their  ligneous 
shell,  which  flies  off  in  pieces..  These  nuts  are  now  divided 
in  three  parcels;  the  first  contains  the  largest  and  most 
beautiful,  destined  to  be  brought  to  Europe;  the  second 
contains  such  as  are  reserved  for  the  use  of  the  inhabitants ; 
and  the  third  contains  the  smallest,  which  are  irregular  or 
unripe.  The  latter  are  burnt,  and  the  former  used  for 
making  oil. 

To  prevent  the  Nutmegs  thus  selected  from  corrupting, 
they  are  plunged  in  a  liquid  of  lime  and  salt-water ;  they 
are  afterwards  laid  in  heaps  where  they  heat,  and  lose 
their  superfluous  moisture  by  evaporation:  when  they  are 
fit  for  being  sent  to  Europe. 

The  Nutmeg  differs  in  goodness  according  to  the  age  of 
the  tree,  the  soil,  the  exposition,  and  method  of  culture. 
The  round  Nutmeg  is  preferred  to  that  which  is  oblong ; 
and  that  fruit  is  more  particularly  esteemed  which  is  fresh, 
moist,  heavy,  of  good  smell,  and  an  agreeable,  though 
bitter  flavour;  and  which  yields  an  oily  juice  upon  being 
pricked. 

A  congealed  oil  is  obtained  by  expression  from  the  Nut¬ 
megs  reje&ed  at  market;  there  is  also  an  oil  distilled  from 
them. 

The  use  of  the  Nutmeg,  both  for  culinary  and  medical 
purposes,  has  been  known  for  many  centuries. 

Nutmeg  trees  grow  in  several  islands  of  the  eastern 
ocean.  The  wood -pigeon  of  the  Moluccas  is  unintentionally 
a  great  planter  of  these  trees,  and  disseminates  them  in 
places,  where  the  Dutch  conceived  it  their  interest,  that 


236 


they  should  be  rooted  out,  or  destroyed.  The  growth  of 
this  aromatic  therefore,  now  is  chiefly  confined  to  a  few- 
of  the  Banda  islands,  whereof  Banda  itself,  Neira,  and 
Pouloay  produce  800,0001b.  of  Nutmegs  annually. 

NUTS;  see  small  Nats. 


NUX  VOMICA. 


F.  Noix  vomiques. 

G.  Kreehenaugen 

D  Braaknooten ,  Kraanoogen. 
I.  Noci  vomiche. 

S.  Mataperrosy  Matacan , 
Nuez  vomica. 


P.  Noz  vomica ,  Canirao . 
DA.  Kranlsoine ,  Brcekno ci¬ 
der .  * 

SW.  Rafkaka. 

POL  Wronie  oko. 

R.  Zulibuchu. 


Nux  vomica,  is  a  flat,  compressed,  round  fruit,  about 
the  breadth  of  a  shilling,  brought  from  the  East  Indies. 
Its  surface  is  not  much  corrugated,  and  its  texture  is  Arm 
like  horn,  and  of  a  pale  greyish  brown  colour  without, 
and  various  colours  within,  sometimes  white,  and  some¬ 
times  brown:  the  largest,  whitest,  newest,  and  cleanest 
being  the  best.  It  is  considerably  bitter  and  deleterious, 
and  used  in  medicine. 


2S7 


OAK. 


F.  Chene . 

G.  Eicbe. 

D.  Eik . 

I.  Quercia. 

S.  Roble ,  Car  hallo. 
P.  Roble,  Carvalho. 


DA.  fsVg-. 
SW,  EL 
POL. 

R.  Dub. 

L.  Quercus. 


There  are  various  species  of  the  Oak  tree,  of  which 
the  most  useful  is  our  common  English  Oak,  quercus  ro- 
bur.  It  grows  from  about  sixty  to  one  hundred  feet  high, 
with  a  prodigiously  large  trunk,  and  spreading  head;  and 
is  supposed  to  continue  its  growth  many  centuries. 

The  Oak  tree  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  Britain  for 
building,  and  particularly  for  her  navy.  The  English  Oak 
claims  precedence  above  any  foreign  species,  for  its  prodi¬ 
gious  height  and  bulk,  and  the  superior  hardness  and  du¬ 
rability  of  the  wood.  The  American  Oak  stands  next  in 
repute  to  the  English. 

The  acorns,  the  fruit  of  the  Oak,  are  good  food  for 
swine,  deer,  and  turkeys. 


OAK  BARK;  see  Bark. 


OATS. 


F.  Avoine. 

G.  Haber,  Hafer. 
D.  Haver. 

I.  Vena,  Avena. 
S.  Avena. 


P.  A<vea. 
DA.  Havre. 
SW.  Hafre. 
R.  O-ives . 

L.  Avena. 


Oats  are  a  small  sort  of  corn  or  grain  used  for  the  feed¬ 
ing  of  horses,  and  sometimes,  in  the  northern  parts  of 


238 


Europe,  for  the  making  of  bread,  after  having  reduced 
them  into  meal  by  grinding  and  cleaning.  Oatmeal  is  also 
used  in  considerable  quantities  for  the  making  of  gruel. 

The  best  Oats  should  be  white,  clean,  of  a  large  full 
grain,  and  heavy.  We  have  annually  a  large  importation 
of  oats,  from  Prussia,  Lower  Saxony,  and  Westphalia-, 
principally  for  the  use  of  the  metropolis,  which  with  its 
environs,  is  computed  to  consume  on  an  average,  thirty 
thousand  quarters  of  Oats  weekly. 

OIL. 

F.  Huile. 

G.  Oehl. 

D.  Oliy  Olky  Oly. 

I.  Olio. 

S.  Aceite. 

P.  Oleo. 

Oil  is  an  unctuous  inflammable  substance,  drawn  from 
several  animal  and  vegetable  bodies. 

Animal  Oils  are  their  fats:  all  animal  substances  yield 
them,  together  with  their  volatile  salts  in  distillation. 

Vegetable  Oils  are  obtained  by  expression,  infusion, 
and  distillation. 

The  Oils  by  expression  are  obtained  from  the  seeds, 
leaves,  fruits,  and  bark  of  plants-,  thus  the  seed  of  mus¬ 
tard  and  of  the  sunflower,  of  almonds,  nuts,  olives,  lin¬ 
seed,  rapeseed,  bay  berries,  mace,  nutmegs,  beechmast, 
&c.  afford  a  copious  Oil  by  expression.  The  method 
of  obtaining  Oils  by  expression  is  very  simple;  thus  if 
fresh  almonds  be  pounded  in  a  mortar,  the  Oil  may  be 
forced  out  without  a  press  not  heated.  The  avoiding  the 
use  of  heat  in  preparing  all  Oils  intended  for  internal 
use  is  of  great  importance,  as  heat  gives  a  very  disagreea¬ 
ble  rancidness.  This  method  holds  of  all  those  vegetable 
matters  that  contain  a  copious  Oil.  Certain  dry  matters 
may  be  made  to  afford  Oils  by  expression,  by  grinding 
them  into  a  meal,  which  being  suspended  to  receive  the  va¬ 
pour  of  boiling  water  will  thus  be  moistened,  so  as  to  af¬ 
ford  an  Oil,  in  the  same  manner  as  almonds:  and  by  this 
process  an  Oil  may  be  procured  from  linseed,  hempseed, 
lettuce  seed,  white  poppy  seed,  & c. 


DA.  Olje. 
SW.  Olja. 
POL.  Oley. 
R.  Maslo. 
L.  Oleum. 


239 


Oils  obtained  by  expression  should  be  suffered  to  depu¬ 
rate  themselves  by  standing  in  a  moderately  cool  place  ; 
to  separate  from  their  water,  and  deposite  their  faeces: 
from  both  which  they  ought  to  be  carefully  freed. 

The  next  class  of  Oils  are  those  made  by  infpsion  or  de¬ 
coction,  wherein  the  virtues  of  some  herb  or  flower  are 
drawn  out  in  the  Oil.  The  scented  flowers  like  jessamine, 
honey  suckle,  sweet  briar,  roses,  &c.  require  to  be  treat¬ 
ed  in  a  particular  manner,  the  essential  Oil  being  too  dear, 
and  scarcely  obtainable  by  distillation;  if  the  flowers  are 
barely  infused  in  fine  Oil  of  nuts,  or  Oil  of  ben,  drawn 
without  heat,  and  kept  in  a  cool  place,  their  subtile  odo¬ 
rous  matter  will  pass  into  the  Oil,  and  richly  impregnate 
it  with  their  flavour.  These  essences  may  be  rendered  still 
more  perfect,  by  straining  off  the  Oil  first  put  on,  and  let¬ 
ting  it  stand  again  without  heat  upon  fresh  flowers:  which 
operation  may  be  repeated  twice  or  thrice.  Oil  impreg¬ 
nated  with  green  herbs,  as  chamomile,  alder,  &c.  require 
long  boiling  to  convey  their  virtues  over  into  the  Oil. 

By  distillation  with  an  alembic,  and  a  large  refrigera¬ 
tory,  the  essential  Oils  of  vegetables  are  obtained.  Water 
must  be  added  to  the  materials  in  sufficient  quantity  to 
prevent  their  burning;  and  they  should  be  macerated  or 
digested  in  that  water  a  little  time  before  distillation.  The 
Oil  comes  over  with  the  water;  and  either  swims  on  the 
top  or  sinks  to  the  bottom,  according  as  it  is  specifically 
heavier  or  lighter  than  water. 

Many  of  the  essential  Oils  being  dear,  it  is  a  very  com¬ 
mon  practice  to  adulterate  or  debase  them  several  ways; 
viz.  1.  with  expressed  Oils;  2.  with  alcohol;  and  3.  with 
cheaper  essential  Oils. 

If  an  essential  Oil  be  adulterated  with  an  expressed  Oil 
it  is  easy  to  discover  the  fraud  by  adding  a  little  spirit  of 
wine  to  a  few  drops  of  the  suspected  essential  Oil,  and 
shaking  them  together;  for  the  spirit  will  dissolve  all  the 
Oil  that  is  essential  and  leave  the  expressed  Oil  untouched. 

If  an  essential  oil  be  adulterated  with  alcohol,  to  disco¬ 
ver  the  fraud,  put  a  few  drops  of  the  oil  into  a  glass  of 
fair  water;  if  the  Oil  be  adulterated  with  spirit,  the  water 
will  immediately  turn  milky,  and  by  continuing  to  shake 
the  glass,  the  whole  quantity  of  spirit  will  be  absorbed 
by  the  water,  and  leave  the  Oil  pure  at  the  top.  If  an  es¬ 
sential  Oil  be  adulterated  by  a  cheaper  essential  Oil,  like 


240 


Oil  of  turpentine,  this  fraud  will  always  disotfver  itself  in 
time,  by  the  real  flavour  being  overpowered  by  the  tur¬ 
pentine  smell :  but  the  ready  way  to  detedf  the  fraud  is,  to 
drench  a  piece  of  rag  or  paper  in  the  Oil  and  hold  it  be¬ 
fore  the  fire;  when  the  grateful  flavour  of  the  plant  will 
fly  off,  and  leave  the  naked  turpentine  scent  behind. 

The  animal  Oils  or  fats  may  be  obtained  by  boiling  and 
expression  from  certain  animal  substances;  for  the  mem¬ 
branes  which  contain  the  fat  being  chopped  small,  and  set 
in  a  pan  over  the  fire,  become  fit  for  the  canvas  bag,  and 
by  pressure  afford  a  large  quantity  of  fat. 

We  shall  content  ourselves  here  with  enumerating  the 
most  usual  kinds  of  Oil  occurring  in  commerce. 

Oil  of  Castor;  see  Castor  Oil. 

Oil  of  Cinnamon ,  is  an  Oil  or  essence  extracted  from 
Cinnamon,  and  hitherto  prepared  by  the  Dutch,  who 
were  much  in  the  habit  of  adulterating  it.  The  Cinnamon 
out  of  which  this  Oil  has  been  extracted,  is  said  often  to 
be  mixed  up  with  the  good  Cinnamon. 

Oil  of  Cloves ;  see  Cloves . 

Oil  of  Linseed;  see  Linseed  Oil. 

Oil  of  Mace;  see  Oil  of  Nutmegs. 

Oil  of  Neroli;  see  Oranges. 

Oil  of  NutmegSy  is  an  essential  Oil  obtained  from  the 
nutmeg  when  distilled  in  water,  and  resembling  in  flavour 
to  the  nutmeg  itself.  Rectified  spirit  extracts  the  whole 
virtue  of  the  nutmeg  by  infusion,  and  elevates  very  little 
of  it  in  distillation;  hence  the  spirituous  extract,  or  the 
spirit  of  nutmeg ,  possesses  the  flavour  of  the  spice  in  an 
eminent  degree. 

Nutmegs  when  heated  yield  to  the  press  a  considerable 
quantity  of  limpid  yellow  Oil,  which,  on  cooling,  has  the 
consistence  of  tallow,  the  colour  of  mace,  and  entirely  the 
flavour  of  nutmegs.  A  pound  of  nutmegs  commonly  gives 
three  ounces  of  Oil.  This  Oil  is  improperly  called  Oil  of 
mace.  The  best  is  brought  from  the  East  Indies  in  stone 
jars.  There  is  also  an  artificial  composition  of  sevum, 
palm  Oil,  & c.  and  a  little  genuine  Oil  of  nutmeg  which  is 
usually  called  common  Oil  of  mace. 

An  Oil  is  readily  extracted  from  mace  by  distillation 
with  water;  this  is  an  essential,  transparent,  and  more  vo¬ 
latile  and  acrid  Oil  than  the  essential  oil  of  Nutmegs. 


241 


Oil  of  Olives ,  is  the  Oil  obtained  by  pressare,  from  the 
fruit  of  the  olive  tree,  called  olea  Europea.  This  tree  is  a 
native  of  the  southern,  warm  parts  of  Europe,  where  it  is 
cultivated  in  great  quantities.  It  rises  with  an  upright 
solid  stem,  branching  numerously  on  every  side,  twenty 
or  thirty  feet  high;  spear-shaped,  stiff,  opposite  leaves, 
two  or  three  inches  long,  and  half  an  inch  or  more  broad  ; 
and  at  the  axiilas  small  clusters  of  white  flowers,  succeeded 
by  oval  fruit. 

The  Oil  is  undoubtedly  that  part  of  the  produce  of 
olive  trees  which  is  of  the  greatest  value.  The  quality  of 
it  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  soil  where  the  trees  grow, 
on  the  kind  of  olive  from  which  it  is  expressed,  on  the  care 
which  is  taken  in  the  gathering  and  pressing  of  the  fruit, 
and  likewise  on  the  separation  of  the  part  to  be  extracted. 
Unripe  olives  give  an  intolerable  bitterness  to  the  Oil:  when 
they  are  overripe,  the  Oil  has  a  rancid  unguinous  taste:  it 
is  therefore  of  importance  to  choose  the  true  point  of  ma¬ 
turity.  When  the  situation  is  favourable,  those  species  of 
olives  are  cultivated,  which  yield  fine  Oils;  otherwise  they 
cultivate  such  trees  as  bear  a  great  quantity  of  fruit,  and 
they  extract  Oil  from  it  for  the  use  of  soaperies  and  lamps. 

They  gather  the  olives  about  the  months  of  November 
or  December.  It  is  best  to  put  them  as  soon  as  possible 
into  baskets,  or  into  bags  made  of  wool  or  hair,  and  to 
press  them  immediately  in  order  to  extract  a  fine  Oil. 
Those  who  make  Oil  only  for  soaperies  let  them  remain 
in  heaps  for  some  time  in  their  storehouses;  when  after¬ 
wards  pressed,  they  yield  a  much  greater  quantity  of  Oil. 
Those  even,  who  extradl  Oil  to  be  used  in  food,  some¬ 
times  allow  them  to  ferment  in  heaps,  that  they  may  have 
more  Oil,  but  this  is  extremely  hurtful  to  the  quality,  and 
the  reason  why  fine  Oil  is  so  very  rare.  In  order  to  have 
the  Oil  in  its  purity  it  must  be  allowed  to  deposite  its  se¬ 
diment,  and  then  poured  off  into  another  vessel.  The 
Oil  extradled  from  the  pulp  only  of  olives  is  the  most  per¬ 
fect  which  can  be  obtained,  and  will  keep  for  several 
years;  but  that  which  is  extracted  from  the  kernel,  or 
from  the  nut,  or  from  the  whole  olive  ground  in  the  com¬ 
mon  way,  in  public  mills,  has  always  more  or  fewer  defedts, 
loses  its  limpidity  in  a  certain  time,  and  is  very  apt  to 
become  rancid.  After  all,  in  the  course  of  time,  olive  Oil 
loses  its  qualities,  becomes  disagreeable  to  the  taste  and 

H  h 


242 

smell,  diminishes  in  fluidity,  and  at  last  thickens  conside¬ 
rably. 

The  refuse  of  the  first  pressing,  when  squeezed  a  se¬ 
cond  time,  yields  an  Oil,  but  thicker  and  less  pure  than 
the  first.  What  remains  after  the  second  pressing,  when 
mixed  with  a  little  water  and  placed  in  a  pan  over  the  fire, 
produces  by  pressure  a  third  Oil,  but  of  a  very  inferior 
quality. 

Oil  of  olives  is  an  ingredient  in  the  composition  of  a 
great  many  balsams,  ointments,  plasters,  mollifying  and 
relaxing  liniments;  but  its  chief  use  is  for  eating,  and  the 
inferior  sorts  are  used  for  the  preparation  of  wool. 

The  consumption  of  this  Oil  is  incredible;  the  southern 
parts  of  France  as  also  Candia,  and  particularly  Italy  and 
Sicily,  yield  the  greatest  quantities. 

The  provinces  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples  most  abundant 
in  Oils  are  Bari,  Otranto,  Calabria,  and  Abruzzo.  The 
produce  upon  ten  years  average  has  been  esteemed  at  six 
hundred  thousand  salme;  about  six  and  a  half  salme  ma¬ 
king  a  tun  of  252  gallons.  The  exportation  of  Oil  brings 
into  Calabria-Ultra  half  a  million  of  ducats  annually.  Gal¬ 
lipoli,  a  seaport  town  in  the  province  of  Otranto,  is  that 
place  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  from  which  the  greatest 
quantity  of  Olive  Oil,  and  the  best  quality  for  the  use  of 
the  British  woollen  manufactories  is  exported.  This  trade 
is  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  merchants  at  Naples  and 
Leghorn,  particularly  the  former,  who  have  their  agents  at 
Gallipoli,  and  by  making  advances  to  the  poor  cultivator 
keep  him  constantly  in  their  chains;  so  much  so,  that  it 
would  be  difficult  to  purchase  a  cargo  of  Gallipoli  Oil  at 
Gallipoli,  and  it  always  can  be  procured  more  reasonably 
at  Naples.  The  Neapolitan  contractors,  either  purchase 
at  a  fixed  price,  or  at  the  prezzo  della  voce,  that  is  to  say, 
the  average  price  of  the  sales  made  in  the  months  of  No¬ 
vember  and  December.  The  orders  for  the  delivery  of 
O*  at  Gallipoli  are  treated  like  bills  of  exchange,  and 
have  sometimes  five  or  six  endorsements.  On  buying  Oil 
the  seller  will  perhaps  not  deliver  any  of  it  out  of  his  own 
cellars,  but  give  orders  upon  others,  and  they  upon  others 
again,  so  that  the  buyers  may  have  to  receive  it  from  a 
dozen  different  people.  Oil  therefore,  at  Gallipoli,  never 
can  be  bought  according  to  sample,  but  if  not  of  a  good 
merchantable  quality  it  can  be  refused.  There  is  much 


243 


jobbing  carried  on  in  this  trade;  frequently  the  Gallipoli 
agents  sell  on  their  own  account  the  Oil  purchased  for 
their  principals,  and  when  the  orders  for  the  delivery  come 
upon  them  of  a  sudden  they  must  replace  it  at  any  price.  A 
plentiful  crop  of  olives  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Gallipoli 
yields  forty  or  fifty  thousand  salms  of  Oil. 

Sicily  Oil  is  inferior  to  Calabria,  and  the  latter  to  Gal¬ 
lipoli  Oil;  so  that  Gallipoli  Oil  is  always  worth  about  two 
pounds  sterling  per  ton  more,  than  the  best  Calabria;  and 
from  three  to  five  pounds  more  than  the  best  Sicily  Oil. 
The  reason  is,  that  the  Calabria  and  Gallipoli  Oils  have 
less  foot,  and  more  colour  and  substance  than  those  of 
Sicily.  This  superior  quality  of  the  Gallipoli  Oil  may  in 
some  measure  proceed  from  the  nature  of  the  soil;  but  it 
lays  more  particularly  in  the  better  management  in  manu¬ 
facturing  and  refining  it.  At  Gallipoli  they  keep  their 
Oil  to  settle  and  purify  in  large  stone  cisterns,  fixed  un¬ 
der  ground,  and  the  quality  of  the  stone  used  for  that  pur¬ 
port  is  said  to  be  particularly  adapted  for  retaining  the 
heat,  and  promoting  thereby  the  fermentation  necessary 
for  i.ts  refinement.  In  Calabria  and  Sicily  it  is  kept  in  large 
earthen  jars. 

At  Gallipoli,  if  the  oil  on  delivery  does  not  prove  lam- 
pante  e  bacille,  that  is,  bright  and  clear,  the  buyer  has 
the  right  to  refuse  it.  In  Sicily,  to  prevent  disputes,  the 
contract  ought  to  be  made  with  the  clause,  a  leva  manu, 
viz.  as  soon  as  the  top  of  a  jar  is  taken  off  with  a  ladle,  and 
the  Oil  appears  in  the  least  disturbed,  the  buyer  may  say 
he  will  have  no  more  of  that  jar. 

The  district  of  Dietro  Marino  produces  the  best  Oil 
in  Calabria,  in  goodness  very  little  inferior  to  that  of  Gal¬ 
lipoli. 

Milazzo  is  the  place  which  in  Sicily  produces  the  great¬ 
est  quantity  of  Oil;  then  comes  Sciacca,  then  Cefalu,  Tasa, 
Mistretta,  Pettineo,  and  S°.  Stefano.  The  Oils  comipg 
from  Milazzo  and  Sciacca  are  chiefly  used  for  the  soap  ma¬ 
nufactories;  those  from  Pettineo  and  Mistretta  are  the  best 
for  eating;  but  the  consumption  of  it  is  limited  to  Italy, 
as  they  have  without  exception,  like  all  Oils  produced  in 
Naples  and  Sicily,  a  rank  taste  and  smell.  This  country 
is  entirely  supplied  with  eating  Oil  from  Leghorn  and 
Genoa,  known  under  the  denomination  of  Lucca  and  Flo¬ 
rence  salad  Oil. 


244 


Oil  abroad,  should  never  be  bought  out  of  casks  as  it  is 
difficult  to  judge  of  the  quality,  and  scarcely  possible  to 
draw  it  off  without  receiving  some  of  the  foot.  To  pre¬ 
vent  leakage,  it  is  best  not  to  ship  Oil  in  cargoes  from  Ita¬ 
ly,  unless  in  autumn  or  winter.  This  article  is  sold  in 
London  by  the  ton  of  236  gallons,  but  pays  freight  and 
duty  at  the  rate  of  252  gallons  to  the  ton. 

The  best  Oil  should  be  clear,  of  strong  body,  free  from 
foot  or  sediment,  of  a  perfectly  sweet  taste  and  smell,  and 
a  bright  gold  colour. 

Oil  of  Palm;  see  Palm  Oil. 

Oil  of  Petrol;  see  Petrol. 

Oil  of  Rape;  see  Rape  Oil. 

Oil  of  sweet  Almonds ,  cold  drawn,  or  without  fire,  is 
prepared  various  ways.  Some  peel  the  almonds  before 
pounding  them,  others  not;  some  warm  them  in  lukewarm 
water,  others  in  balneo  marine;  some  only  bruise  them, 
others  beat  them  into  a  paste.  When  pressed  gently,  and 
when  all  the  unctuous  and  fluid  parts  are  expressed,  they 
will  yield  a  sweet  Oil,  without  any  sediment. 

Oil  of  Turpentine.  Upon  making  turpentine,  the  sap 
which  collects  in  a  hole  at  the  bottom  of  the  tree,  is  put 
in  a  basket.  The  part  which  runs  through  constitutes 
the  turpentine,  and  the  thicker  matter  which  remains  in. 
the  basket  they  put  into  a  common  alembic,  adding  a  large 
quantity  of  water;  they  distil  this  as  long  as  any  Oil  is 
seen  swimming  upon  the  water;  this  Oil  separated  from  the 
surface,  is  the  common  limpid,  essential  Oil,  called  Spirit 
of  Turpentine.  The  remaining  matter  at  the  bottom  of  the 
still  is  common  yellow  Rosin. 

Oil  of  Vitriol  is  the  common  name  given  in  trade  to  the 
vitriolic  acid.  It  was  formerly  extracted  by  distillation  from 
copperas,  but  is  now  solely  procured  frum  sulphur.  This 
substance  contains  the  vitrolic  acid  in  such  abundance,  that 
as  much  as  fourteen  ounces  of  Oil  have  been  drawn  from 
one  pound  of  sulphur;  and  as  the  only  method  hitherto 
practised  of  decomposing  sulphur  is  by  burning  it,  and 
no  process  has  as  yet  been  fallen  upon  to  condense  all  fcha 
steams  of  burning  sulphur,  it  must  contain  a  much  larger 
quantity. 

The  difficulties  here  are,  that  sulphur  cannot  be  burnt 
but  in  an  open  vessel,  and  the  steam  of  air  which  is  admitted 
to  make  it  burn,  also  carries  off  the  acid,  which  is  emitted 


245 


in  the  form  of  smoke.  To  avoid  this,  a  method  was  con¬ 
trived  of  burning  sulphur  in  large  glass  globes,  capable  of 
containing  an  hogshead  or  more.  The  fume  of  the  burn¬ 
ing  sulphur  was  then  allowed  to  circulate  till  it  would 
condense  into  an  acid  liquor.  A  greater  difficulty  however 
now  occurred;  for  though  the  sulphur  burned  very  well, 
its  steams  never  condensed.  For  this  purpose  nitre  was 
advantageously  used.  This  consumes  a  very  large  quanti¬ 
ty  of  the  phlogiston  contained  in  sulphur,  and  renders  the 
acid  easily  condensible:  but  it  is  plain,  that  few  of  the 
fumes  comparatively  speaking,  are  thus  deprived  of  the  in¬ 
flammable  principle;  for  the  vessel  in  which  the  sulphur 
and  nitre  are  burnt  remains  filled  with  a  volatile  and  most 
suffocating  fume,  which  extinguishes  flame,  and  issues  in 
such  quantity,  as  to  render  it  highly  dangerous  to  stay 
near  the  place. 

The  proportion  of  nitre  to  the  sulphur  used  in  the  large 
Oil  of  Vitriol  works  is  not  known,  every  thing  being  kept 
as  secret  as  possible  by  the  proprietors.  It  seems  that  an 
ounce  and  a  half,  or  two  ounces,  may  be  advantageously 
used  to  a  pound  of  sulphur. 

A  very  great  improvement  in  the  art  of  making  Oil  of 
Vitriol  lies  in  the  using  lead  vessels  instead  of  glass  globes; 
the  globe  being  so  apt  to  be  broken.  The  leaden  vessels, 
according  to  the  best  accounts  we  have  been  able  to  procure, 
are  cubes  of  about  three  feet,  having  on  one  side  a  door  a- 
bout  six  inches  wide.  The  mixture  of  sulphur  and  nitre  is 
placed  in  the  hollow  of  the  cube,  in  an  earthen  saucer  seton 
a  stand  made  of  the  same  materials.  The  quantity  which 
can  be  consumed  at  once  in  such  a  vessel  is  about  two 
ounces.  The  sulphur  being  kindled,  the  door  is  to  be 
close  shut,  and  the  whole  let  alone  for  two  hours.  In  that 
time  the  fumes  will  be  condensed.  The  door  is  then  to 
be  opened,  and  the  operator  must  immediately  retire,  to 
escape  the  suffocating  fumes  which  issue  from  the  vessel. 
It  will  be  an  hour  before  he  can  safely  return,  and  intro¬ 
duce  another  quantity  of  materials,  which  are  to  be  treat¬ 
ed  precisely  in  the  same  manner. 

Where  Oil  of  Vitriol  is  made  in  large  quantities,  the 
slowness  of  the  operation  requires  a  great  number  of  lead 
vessels,  and  constant  attendance  day  and  night.  Hence 
the  making  of  this  acid  is  very  expensive.  The  apparatus 


246 


for  a  large  work  usually  costs  fifteen  hundred  pounds 
sterling. 

OLIBANUM;  see  Frankincense. 

OLIVES. 


F.  Olives. 

G.  Olivers. 

1.  TJlive y  Olive . 
S.  Aceitunas. 

P.  Axeilonas . 


DA.  Oliver. 
SW.  Oliver. 
POL.  Olivoki 
R.  Olivjkii, 

L.  Olivas. 


Olives  are  the  fruit  of  the  olea  Europea  or  common 
Olive  tree,  cultivated  in  great  quantities  in  the  south  of 
France,  Italy,  Spain,  and  Portugal.  Olives  have  an  acid, 
bitter,  extremely  disagreeable  taste:  pickled  as  we  receive 
them  from  abroad,  they  prove  less  disagreeable.  The 
Lucca  Olives,  which  are  smaller  than  the  others,  have  the 
weakest  taste  ;  the  Provence  Olives  being  of  a  middling 
size,  are  generally  the  most  esteemed.  The  Olives  of 
Reggio  are  large  and  pulpy,  and  much  admired  by  those 
who  relish  a  high  flavour,  but  to  those  who  have  been  ac¬ 
customed  only  to  eat  the  Provence  sort  they  appear  too 
strong. 

When  Olives  are  intended  for  preservation  they  are  ga¬ 
thered  before  they  are  ripe.  The  art  of  preparing  them 
consists  in  removing  their  bitterness,  in  preserving  them 
green,  and  in  impregnating  them  with  a  brine  of  aroma¬ 
tic  sea-salt,  which  gives  them  an  agreeable  taste.  For 
this  purpose  different  methods  are  employed.  Formerly 
they  used  a  mixture  of  a  pound  of  quicklime  with  six 
pounds  of  newly  sifted  wood-ashes;  but  of  late  instead  of 
the  ashes  they  employ  nothing  but  a  lye. 

Olives  perfectly  ripe  are  of  a  dark  red  colour.  They 
are  then  eaten  without  any  preparation,  excepting  only  a 
seasoning  of  pepper,  salt,  and  oil;  for  they  are  extreme¬ 
ly  tart,  bitter,  and  corrosive. 

The  quantity  of  Olives  used  for  eating,  when  ripe,  and 
for  preserving,  is  but  trifling  if  compared  to  that  consu¬ 
med  for  the  manufacture  of  Olive  Oil 


247 


ONIONS. 


F.  Ognions. 

G.  Tj^voiebel. 

D.  Uyen ,  Ajtdn. 
I.  Cipolla . 

S.  Cebolla . 

P.  Cebola. 


DA.  Rod t'og, 
SW. 

POL.  Cebula. 
R.  L«/L 
L.  Allium  cep  a. 


The  most  reputed  sorts  of  Onions  are,  the  Strasburgh, 
the  Spanish,  and  the  Egyptian.  It  is  not  known  from 
whence  this  plant  was  first  brought  to  Europe,  but  certain 
it  is,  that  it  was  known  in  Egypt  two  thousand  years  be¬ 
fore  Christ.  Dr,  Hasselquist  much  celebrates  the  sweet¬ 
ness  of  the  Egyptian  Onion.  The  Spanish  Onion  is  most 
famous  in  this  country,  and  imported  in  quantities. 


OPAL, 

Is  one  of  the  rarest  gems  to  be  met  with.  One  descri¬ 
bed  in  Frederick  Hasselquist’s  travels  in  the  Levant,  was 
of  the  size  of  a  hazel  nut,  in  the  form  of  a  half  globe. 

If  held  horizontally,  it  had  a  very  fine  olive  colour 
but  if  held  perpendicularly,  between  the  eye  and  the  light, 
it  had  the  colour  of  the  finest  ruby. 

The  ^pa^was  more  common  among  the  Ancients  than 
it  is  at  present.  The  above  described  Opal  had  probably 
lain  concealed  in  the  ruins  of  Alexandria;  and  there  is 
scarcely  any  kind  of  stone  accounted  precious  by  the  An¬ 
cients,  which  is  not  to  be  found  in  the  ruins  of  Alexan¬ 
dria  and  Old  Cairo.  Tavernier  says,  the  Opal  is  now  to 
be  found  only  in  a  mine  in  Hungary. 


OPIUM, 

Is  an  inspissated  juice,  partly  of  the  resinous,  and  part¬ 
ly  of  the  gummy  kind,  brought  to  us  in  cakes,  from 
eight  ounces  to  a  pound  weight.  It  is  very  heavy,  of 
a  dense  texture,  and  not  perfectly  dry;  but  in  general 


248 


easily  receives  an  impression  from  the  finger:  its  colour  is 
of  a  brownish  yellow,  so  very  dark  and  dusky,  that  at 
first  it  appears  black.  It  has  a  dead  and  faint  smell,  and 
its  taste  is  very  bitter  and  acrid.  That  kind  is  most  in 
esteem  which  is  rather  soft  and  yields  to  the  touch,  is  in¬ 
flammable,  of  a  blackish  brown  colour,  and  has  a  strong 
fetid  smell.  Careis  also  to  be  taken  that  there  be  no  dirty 
or  stony  matter  in  it. 

Opium  is  the  juice  of  the  papaver  somniferum,  with 
which  the  fields  of  Asia  Minor,  and  Bahar  in  India  are  in 
many  places  sown,  as  ours  are  with  corn.  When  the 
heads  are  near  ripening  they  wound  them  with  an  instru¬ 
ment  that  makes  at  once  five  long  cuts,  and  out  of  these 
wounds  the  Opium  flows.  After  they  have  collected  the 
Opium,  they  moisten  it  with  a  small  quantity  of  water  or 
honey,  and  work  it  a  long  time  upon  a  flat,  hard,  and 
smooth  board,  with  a  thick  and  strong  instrument  of  the 
same  wood,  till  it  becomes  of  the  consistence  of  pitch*,  and 
then  form  it  into  cakes  or  rolls  for  sale. 

The  meconium,  or  common  Opium,  is  prepared  in  the 
East  Indies,  by  pressing  the  poppy  heads,  that  have  been 
already  cut.  The  juice  which  comes  out  of  them,  mixed 
with  the  least  beautiful  of  the  other  drops,  is  kneaded 
with  water  and  made  into  cakes  which  are  sent  to  Europe. 
The  finer  East  India  Opium  not  being  brought  to  Europe 
may  account  for  the  superior  quality  of  the  Turkey  Opium. 
A  very  considerable  trade  in  this  article  is  carried  on  at  Pat¬ 
na,  on  the  river  Ganges. 

An  excessive  fondness  for  Opium  prevails  in  all  parts  of 
Turkey  and  the  East  Indies.  In  vain  have  the  laws  of 
China  condemned  to  the  flames  every  vessel  that  imports, 
and  every  house  that  receives  it;  the  consumption  is  not 
less  considerable.  It  is  still  greater  at  Malacca,  Borneo, 
the  Moluccas,  Java,  Macassar,  Sumatra,  &c.  These 
islanders  smoke  it  with  their  tobacco;  those  who  are  de¬ 
sirous  of  attempting  some  desperate  a£lion  intoxicate 
themselves  with  this  smoke. 

Opium,  at  present,  is  in  great  esteem,  and  is  one  of 
the  most  valuable  of  all  the  simple  medicines.  It  is  the 
most  sovereign  remedy  for  easing  pain,  and  procuring 
sleep.  According  to  the  different  manner  of  preparing  it, 
and  the  doses  in  which  it  is  given,  it  stupifies,  excites 
agreeable  ideas,  or  occasions  madness. 


I 


249 


QPOBALSAMUM;  see  Balsam  of  Gilead . 

OPOPONAX;  see  Gum  Opoponax. 
ORANGE  BUDS. 


Are  small  dried  Oranges  which  fromwant  of  nourishment, 
blights,  or  other  causes,  fall  from  the  trees,  before  coming 
to  perfection;  as  is  the  case  with  other  fruit.  They  come 
mostly  from  Italy  and  are  used  by  distillers  and  others  to 
give  a  flavour  to  various  kinds  of  spirits  and  liquids,  . 


ORANGES. 


F.  Oranges. 

G.  Po?neranzen. 
D .  Oranj  en. 

I.  Melarance . 

S.  Naranjas . 

P.  Laranjas . 


DA.  Pomerantsev. 
SW.  Pomeranser. 
POL.  Pomeranczy. 
R.  Pcmerancstu. 

L.  Aurantia  mala. 


Oranges  are  the  fruit  of  the  citrus  aurantium,  or  Orange 
tree.  This  tree  has  an  upright  smooth  trunk,  divided  up¬ 
wards  into  a  branchy  regular  head,  from  five  to  ten  and 
twelve  feet  high ;  oval,  spear  shaped,  entire  leaves,  ha¬ 
ving  winged  footstalks,  and  numerous  white  flowers  at 
the  sides  of  the  branches,  succeeded  by  globular  fruit, 
compressed  at  both  ends.  The  most  noted  varieties  are; 
I,  The  Seville  Orange,  being  a  large  rough  rinded,  and 
sour  fruit,  of  excellent  quality  for  economical  uses.  2,  The 
China  Orange,  a  smooth  thin  rinded  sweet  fruit,  of  which 
there  are  several  varieties.  3,  The  great  Shaddock  Orange, 
a  very  large  fruit,  having  a  reddish  pulp.  It  derives  the 
name  of  Shaddock  from  one  of  that  name,  who  first 
brought  it  from  the  East  Indies,  4,  The  forbidden  fruit 
tree  bears  a  fruit  which  when  ripe,  is  larger  and  longer 
than  the  biggest  Orange.  It  has  somewhat  the  taste  of  a 
I  i 


250 


Shaddock,  but  far  exceeds  that,  as  well  as  the  best  Orange? 
in  its  delicious  taste  and  flavour.  5,  The  horned  Orange 
tree  produces  fruit  which  divide,  and  the  rind  runs  out 
into  divisions  like  horns.  6,  The  hermaphrodite  Orange 
bears  fruit  partly  like  an  Orange  and  partly  like  a  citron. 
7,  The  dwarf  Orange  tree,  or  nutmeg  Orange,  bears  a 
very  small  fruit. 

The  flowers  of  all  the  species  and  varieties  of  citrus  ap¬ 
pear  principally  in ‘May  or  June;  the  fruit  continue  setting 
in  June  and  July,  and  ripen  the  year  following. 

Great  quantities  of  Seville  Oranges  are  consumed  in 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  which  are  chiefly  brought  from 
Spain  and  Portugal. 

Reggio  is  said  to  be  the  spot  where  the  culture  of  Oran¬ 
ges  was  first  attempted  in  Italy,  and  from  whence  it  was 
extended  over  the  country. 

The  exports  from  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  in  the 
year  1747,  comprehended  296,000  Oranges,  and  in  1761 
161,000.  Whence  it  appears,  that  this  fruit  is  as  much  an 
established  commodity  for  their  export,  as  it  is  at  Lisbon 
or  Seville.  As  Oranges  come  to  great  perfection  in  the 
West  India  islands,  it  is  a  pity  their  culture  is  not  more 
attended  to  in  Jamaica  and  other  of  our  colonies. 

Oranges  are  reckoned  a  very  efficacious  antiscorbutic 
medicine.  The  peel  of  the  Orange  contains  a  conside¬ 
rable  warmth,  and  abounds  in  essential  oil;  its  flavour  is 
also  less  perishable  than  that  of  lemons,  and  it  serves  as  an 
ingredient  in  many  medicinal  preparations.  The  flowers 
of  the  Orange  tree  have  been  for  some  time  past  in  great 
esteem  as  a  perfume.  They  are  highly  odoriferous,  and 
of5  a  somewhat  warm  and  bitter  taste.  They  yield  their 
flavour  by  infusion  to  rectified  spirit,  and  in  distillation 
both  to  spirit  and  water.  An  oil  distilled  from  the  flow¬ 
ers  is  brought  from  Italy,  under  the  name  of  oleum ,  or  es¬ 
sentia  neroli. 


ORCHELLA,  archilla. 


F.  Orseille . 

G.  Orselje. 

D.  Orseille ,  Or  cel,  Orchil 
lie. 

I.  Oricello ,  Orcella,  Recella, 
Rasp  a, 

S.  Or  chill  a. 


P.  Or  sella,  Orzella. 
DA.  Orselje,  Far-vemos. 
SW.  Or  si]  a. 

POL.  Mech  far  bier  ski. 
R.  Arsel. 

L.  Rocella. 


The  lichen  rocella,  or  Orchella  weed,  is  a  whitish  moss, 
yielding  a  rich  purpls  tin&ure  used  for  dying.  It  is  found 
in  abundance  in  several  of  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago, 
and  also  in  some  of  those  near  the  African  coast,  particu¬ 
larly  the  Canary  and  Cape  de  Verd  islands.  It  grows  part¬ 
ly  in  single,  partly  in  double  stems,  to  the  height  of  about 
two  inches,  of  a  light  or  sometimes  dark  grey. 

As  early  as  the  times  of  Pliny,  it  would  appear  that 
this  plant  was  used  for  giving  the  ground  to  dye  purple, 
as  the  phycos  thalasion  or  pontion,  of  which  he  speaks, 
is  probably  our  Orchella. 

However  this  be,  the  art  of  dying  with  Orchella  was 
discovered  in  the  Levant  about  the  year  1300,  by  a  Flo¬ 
rentine  merchant,  of  the  family  of  Oricellarii  or  Rucellai, 
who  happening  one  day  to  make  water  on  a  plant,  of 
which  there  was  great  abundance,  observed  that  it  became 
extraordinary  red,  and  having  made  several  experiments 
on  the  herb,  and  finding  it  proper  to  die  wool  purple,  he 
sent  some  of  it  to  Florence,  where  it  became  of  great  uti¬ 
lity  in  the  cloth  manufactures. 

Certain  it  is,  from  a  variety  of  documents,  that  the  art 
of  dying  in  Oricello  was  known  at  Florence  in  the  com¬ 
mencement  of  the  fourteenth  century,  from  whence  it 
spread  over  the  rest  of  Europe. 

The  Italians  alone  for  some  time  furnished  all  Europe 
with  Orchella  from  the  Levant.  But  upon  the  Canary 
islands  being  re-discovered,  about  the  end  of  the  four¬ 
teenth  or  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century,  it  was 
principally  imported  from  thence. 

The  growth  of  Orchella  in  the  Canary  islands  is  more 
beautiful  and  in  greater  abundance,  than  in  the  Levant; 
and  that  of  the  Cape  de  Verd  island^  again,  appears 


252 


larger,  richer,  and  longer,  than  that  coming  from  the 
Canaries;  which  may  be  owing  to  its  not  being  collected 
every  year. 

This  moss  is  imported  to  us  as  it  is  gathered,  but  to  pre¬ 
pare  it  for  the  purpose  of  dying,  it  is  ground  betwixt 
stones,  moistened  occasionally  with  spirits  of  wine,  and 
so  made  up  in  a  paste,  called  by  the  French  Orseille  en 
pate ;  and  many,  instead  of  keeping  the  paste  in  a  moist 
state  with  wine,  as  they  ought,  suffer  it  to  dry,  in  order 
to  save  a  litte  dirty  work.  It  then  has  the  appearance  of 
a  dark  violet-coloured  earth,  with  here  and  there  some 
white  spots  in  it. 

The  Dutch  are  the  inventors  of  a  dye  called  lacmus,  or 
Orseille  en  pierre ,  which  seems  to  be  an  adulterated  kind  of 
Orchella  paste. 

There  is  also  a  kind  of  moss  different  frorfi  the  Archilla, 
and  known  by  the  name  of  Orseille  de  terre,  Orseille  d’ Au¬ 
vergne,  which  is  used  for  the  like  purposes,  but  it  contains 
fewer  and  weaker  colouring  particles. 

The  Orchella  piste  is  rarely  used  as  a  dying  material  by 
itself,  on  account  of  its  being  too  dear,  and  its  beauty  too 
perishable.  It  is  chiefly  employed  to  give  a  bloom  to  other 
colours,  as  pinks,  &e. 

Linnaeus  in  the  Swedish  transactions  for  the  year  1748 
mentions,  that  the  true  Archil  moss  is  to  be  found  on  the 
western  coasts  of  England. 

This  dye  has  been  for  a  considerable  time  past  prepared 
in  Scotland  from  a  species  found  in  the  Highlands. 


ORPIMENT. 


F.  Orpiment,  Orpin. 

G.  Operment. 

D.  Operment . 

I.  Orpimento . 

S.  Oropimente. 

P.  Ouropimente. 


DA.  Operment. 

SW.  Operment. 

POL.  Aurypigment,  Zlcto- 
kost. 

R.  Awipigment ,  Opermente . 
L.  Auripigmentum. 


Orpiment  is  a  semi-metal  usually  found  in  copper  mines. 
Its  colour  is  always  yellow,  intermixed  with  shades  of 
other  colours,  as  green,  red,  o*ange,  and  others. 

What  is  usually  called  red  Orpiment,  or  red  arsenic, 
is  only  the  yellow  Orpiment  heated  to  a  great  degree. 


253 


and  put  into  a  crucible  with  oil  of  hempseed,  olives,  or 
nuts. 

Painters,  farriers,  and  others,  make  a  great  consump¬ 
tion  of  this  mineral;  but  as  it  is  found  a  violent  corrosive, 
it  should  be  used  with  great  precaution. 

White  Orpiment,  is  the  same  with  arsenic. 

OSTRIOTs  DOWN  and  FEATHERS;  see  Down 
and  Feathers . 


OYSTERS. 


F.  Huitres. 

G.  Austern. 
D.  O  esters, 
1.  0.7  riche, 
S.  O  sir  as. 
P.  Os  trass. 


DA.  Osters. 
SW.  Oslron. 
POL.  Ostrygi 
R.  Ustrizu. 

L.  Ostreee. 


The  Oyster  is  a  small,  flat,  shell  fish,  the  fishery  of 
which  is  carried  on  in  a  very  considerable  manner  in  seve¬ 
ral  places  along  the  British  and  Irish  coasts;  but  more  parti¬ 
cularly  in  Wales,  and  the  eastern  part  of  England;  from 
whence  they  are  sent  to  market,  either  fresh,  or  pickled 
in  barrels.  The  Colchester  Oysters  are  particularly  fa¬ 
mous. 

They  also  take  Oysters  on  the  coast  of  France;  but 
they  are  so  very  poor,  that  they  bring  them  over  to  Eng¬ 
land  to  be  fattened.  The  Dutch  have  likewise  a  few 
Oysters;  but  they,  as  well  as  the  French,  are  obliged  to 
have  recourse  to  the  English  for  Oysters  of  any  delicacy. 

Oysters  are  in  season  from  the  month  of  August  all  au¬ 
tumn  and  winter  till  March,  when  they  begin  to  spawn. 


254 


PALM  OIL. 


F.  Huile  de  palme,  Huile  de 
Senegal. 

G.  Palmol. 

D.  Palm  olie. 

I.  Olio  di  palma. 


S.  Aceite  de  palma. 

P.  Oleo  de  palma. 

DA.  Palmeolie. 

SW.  Palm  olja. 

L.  Oleum  palmee  <verum. 


This  oil  is  said  to  be  the  produce  of  the  palma  spinosa 
major;  the  fruit  or  nuts  of  which  are  full  of  oil.  It  is  ob¬ 
tained  by  boiling  them  in  water,  when  the  oleaginous  par¬ 
ticles  rise  to  the  surface,  and  are  skimmed  off,  and  strain¬ 
ed  for  use. 

This  tree  grows  in  most  parts  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  Ame¬ 
rica.  The  negroes  are  fond  of  the  oil,  which  sometimes 
makes  an  ingredient  in  their  food.  It  is  very  efficacious  by 
way  of  embrocation,  for  strains,  or  to  discuss  rheumatic 
aches,  &c. 

PASTEL;  see  Kermes. 


PEARL  ASHES. 


F.  Per  leas  se ,  Cendres  de 
Perle. 

G.  Perlasche. 

D.  Paereldsch. 

I.  Cenere  di  Per  la. 


S.  Cenizas  de  Per  las. 
P.  Cinza  de  Perolas . 
DA.  Perlaske. 

S^.  Perlaska. 


Pearl  Ashes  are  a  kind  of  fixed  alkaline  salt.  It  is  pre¬ 
pared  by  mixing  the  ashes  of  burnt  wood  with  water,  eva¬ 
porating  the  clear  ley,  and  calcining  them  for  a  conside¬ 
rable  time  in  an  oven  moderately  hot.  The  goodness  of 
Pearl  Ashes  is  distinguished  by  their  strong  body,  and  an 
uniform  white  appearance:  and  their  value  decreases  in 


255 


proportion  to  the  blue  cast  they  have:  blue  then,  are  the 
most  inferior  sort  of  Pearl  ashes.  This  article  being  subject 
to  an  adulteration,  by  the  addition  of  common  salt,  the  fraud 
can  be  discovered  by  taking  a  small  quantity  of  suspe&ed 
matter,,  and  letting  it  lay  to  soften  in  the  air,  and  then  put¬ 
ting  it  in  a  shovel  over  the  fire;  if  it  contains  any  common 
salt  a  crackling,  and  kind  of  slight  explosion,  will  take  place 
when  the  salt  grows  hot. 

Pearl  Ashes  are  chiefly  prepared  in  Russia,  Poland,  Hun¬ 
gary,  and  North  America;  they  are  much  used  in  the  ma¬ 
nufacture  of  glass,  also  for  bleaching,  & c. 

The  patent  dated  2d  April,  1791,  granted  to  George 
Glenny,  of  Bromley-Hill,  in  the  county  of  Kent.  Esq.  for 
his  method  of  obtaining  from  wood  ashes,  a  much  greater 
quantity  than  usual  of  Pearl  and  pot-ashes,  is  as  follows: 
That  the  common  ashes  produced  by  burning  wood,  must 
be  completely  calcined  in  a  furnace ;  and  if  a  small  propor¬ 
tion  of  lime  be  sifted  among  the  wood  ashes  before  they 
are  put  in  the  calcining  furnace,  it  will  prevent  them  from 
vitrifying;  but  if  they  are  at  times  stirred  with  an  iron  rake, 
or  other  proper  instrument,  during  the  process  of  calcination, 
that  will  answer  the  purpose  of  adding  the  lime;  and  when 
the  ashes  are  calcined  into  a  fine  powder,  the  usual  method 
may  be  pursued,  but  it  is  better  to  boil  them  in  large  vessels, 
especially  in  frosty  weather. 


F.  P tries. 

G.  Perlen. 
D.  Paarlen. 
1.  Perle. 

S.  Per 'las. 


DA.  Perler. 
SW.  Parlor . 
POL.  Perly . 


R.  Sbemtschug . 
L,  Margarita. 


P.  Perolas. 

Pearls  are  a  hard,  white,  shining,  usually  roundish  body, 
found  in  a  testaceous  fish  resembling  an  oyster. 

The  fish  in  which  these  are  usually  produced  is  the  East 
Indian  Pearl  oyster,  as  it  is  commonly  called.  Besides  this, 
the  common  oyster,  the  muscle,  and  several  other  shell-fish, 
produce  a  kind  of  Pearl. 

All  Pearls  are  formed  of  the  matter  of  the  shell,  and  con¬ 
sist  of  a  number  of  coats,  spread  with  perfect  regularity, 
one  over  another,  like  the  several  coats  of  an  onion.  They 
are  said  to  proceed  only  from  a  distemper  in  the  fish,  ana- 


256 


lagous  to  the  bezoars,  and  other  stony  concretions  in  several 
animals  of  other  kinds. 

Though  these  ornaments  are  met  with  in  all  parts  of  the 
globe,  the  most  esteemed  have  always  been  those  of  Asia, 
and  the  east  coast  of  Africa.  In  the  kingdom  of  Madura, 
which  lies  on  the  east  of  Malabar,  there  are  many  Pearl  fishe¬ 
ries.  Tutukurin  or  Tutucorin  is  the  principal,  if  not  the 
only  city,  on  the  fishery  coast.  At  the  time  the  Portuguese 
were  masters  in  these  parts,  the  Pearl  fishery  in  the  straits 
betwixt  {:he  island  of  Ceylon  and  the  continent,  was  stiled, 
by  way  of  excellence,  the  fishery,  and  very  deservedly;  for 
though  some  prefer  the  Pearls  taken  near  the  island  of  Ba- 
haren,  in  the  Persian  gulf,  and  those  likewise  found  on  the 
coast  of  China  at  Hainan,  yet  the  produce  of  these  fisheries 
was  very  seldom  superior  to  that  alluded  to.  At  present  the 
Pearl  fishery  carried  on  in  the  strait  between  Ceylon  and 
the  Continent  is  so  much  exhausted,  that  it  takes  generally 
five  or  six  years  before  a  sufficient  quantity  of  Pearls  are  to 
be  found.  The  Pearls  taken  at  Beharen,  though  not  so 
white  as  those  of  China  and  Ceylon,  are  much  larger  than 
those  of  the  latter  place,  and  much  more  regularly  shaped 
than  the  former.  They  are  of  a  yellowish  cast,  but  preserve 
their  golden  hue,  whereas  the  whiter  kind  lose  much  of 
their  lustre  by  keeping;  particularly  in  a  hot  climate.  The 
shell  of  both  these  species,  which  is  known  by  the  name  of 
Mother  of  Pearf  is  used  for  various  purposes.  There  are  a 
variety  of  rivers  in  the  Eastern  Tartary  considerable  for 
Pearl  fishery,  though  defective  in  shape  and  colour.  Many 
rivulets  in  Livonia  produce  Pearls,  almost  equal  in  size  to 
the  oriental  ones.  In  Scotland,  especially  to  the  northward, 
about  Perth,  as  far  as  Loch-Tay,  in  all  the  rivers  running 
from  lakes,  there  are  found  muscles  that  have  Pearls  of  more 
than  ordinary  merit,  though  seldom  of  large  size;  but  this 
fishery  is  at  present  exhausted. 

The  American  Pearl  fisheries  are  all  in  the  gulf  of  Mexico, 
along  the  coast  of  Terra  Firma.  The  greatest  quantity,  and 
the  finest,  both  with  regard  to  weight  and  water,  are  found 
about  the  island  of  Marguerites.  There  are  also  some  small 
Pearls  in  the  South  Sea,  particularly  in  the  bay  of  Panama; 
but  they  are  very  inconsiderable.  The  West  Indians  knew 
the  value  of  their  pearls  before  the  discovery  of  America, 
and  when  the  Spaniards  arrived  there  they  found  great  quan¬ 
tities  stored  up;  but  they  were  almost  all  imperfect,  and 
their  water  yellow  and  smoky,  because  they  used  fire  in 
opening  the  fish. 


259 


There  are  two  seasons  for  Pearl  fishing  in  the  East  Indies : 
the  first  is  in  March  and  April,  and  the  last  in  August  and 
September;  and  the  more  rain  there  falls  in  the  year  the 
more  plentiful  are  these  fisheries.  As  the  oysters  are  usually 
firmly  fastened  to  the  rocks,  the  divers  commonly  take  iron 
rakes  down  in  the  sea  to  loosen  them;  they  also  carry  down 
with  them  a  large  net,  in  the  manner  of  a  sack,  tied  to  the 
neck  by  a  long  cord,  the  other  end  of  which  is  fastened  to 
the  side  of  the  bark.  This  net  is  to  hold  the  oysters  gathered 
from  the  rock,  and  the  cord  is  to  pull  up  the  diver,  when 
the  bag  is  full,  or  when  he  wants  air.  He  sometimes  pre¬ 
cipitates  himself  sixty  feet  under  the  water,  and  whatever 
depth  he  be,  the  light  is  so  great,  that  he  easily  sees  what¬ 
ever  passes  in  the  sea.  To  his  great  consternation  he  some¬ 
times  perceives  monstrous  fishes,  from  which  all  his  ad¬ 
dress  in  mudding  the  water,  &c.  will  not  always  save  him, 
and  this  is  one  of  the  greatest  dangers  of  the  fishery.  The 
best  divers  will  keep  under  water  near  half  an  hour,  and 
the  rest  do  not  stay  less  than  a^ quarter.  During  this  time, 
they  hold  their  breath,  without  the  use  of  oils  or  any  other 
liquors.  When  they  find  themselves  straitened  they  puli 
the  rope  to  be  hove  up  in  the  air.  On  the  shore  they 
unload  their  barks,  and  iay  the  Pearl  fish  in  an  infinite 
number  of  little  pits  dug  in  the  sand,  raising  heaps  of  sand 
over  them;  and  in  this  condition  they  are  left  till  the  rain, 
wind,  and  sun1,  have  obliged  them  to  open,  which  soon  kills 
them;  upon  this  the  flesh  rots  and  dries,  and  the  Pearls  thus 
disengaged,  fall  into  the  pit  on  their  taking  out  the  shell. 
After  clearing  the  pits,  and  cleaning  and  drying  the  Pearls, 
they  are  passed  through  a  kind  of  sieve,  according  to  their 
sizes. 

Aleppo  is  the  staple  place  of  the  East  Indian  Pearls;  from 
thence  they  are  transported  to  Leghorn,  and  then  circulated 
through  Europe. 


PEASE. 


F.  Pais. 

G.  Erbsin.  y 
D.  Er*wten. 

I  Pise  Hi,  Bisi,  Erbione. 
S.  Pe soles,  Guisanies. 


DA.  Aerter. 
SW.  Aerter. 
POL.  Greek „ 
R.  Goroch. 

L.  Pisa , 


P.  Evilhas ,  Hernsilbas. 

Pease  are  a  kind  of  pulse,  of  several  sorts;  as  white,  yel- 
low,  green,  and  grey.  They  are  also  divided  into  boiling 


Kk 


260 


and  hog  Pease.  The  former  kind  is  proper  for  the  food  of 
man,  and  particularly  serviceable  as  sea  provision. 

PEPPER. 


F.  Pci<vre. 

G.  Pfeffer. 
D.  Peper. 

1.  Pcpe. 

S.  Pimienta. 
P.  Pimento. . 


DA.  Peber. 
SW.  Peppar. 
POL.  Pieprz. 
R.  Perez. 

L.  Piper. 


Pepper  is  an  aromatic  berry  of  a  hot  dry  quality,  chiefly 
used  in  seasoning.  There  are  three  kinds  of  Pepper  at 
present  used  in  the  shops,  the  black,  the  white,  and  the  long 
Pepper. 

Black  Pepper  is  the  fruit  of  the  piper  siriboa.  This  is  a 
shrub  rising  into  a  stem  which  requires  a  tree  or  prop  to 
support  it.  The  leaves,  which  have  a  strong  smell  and  pun¬ 
gent  taste,  are  of  an  oval  shape,  though  terminating  in  a 
point.  From  the  flower  buds,  which  are  white,  are  pro¬ 
duced  small  berries,  commonly  gathered  in  October,  and 
exposed  to  the  sun  for  seven  or  eight  days.  This  fruit, 
which  is  green  at  first,  and  afterwards  red,  assumes  the  ap¬ 
pearance  which  Black  Pepper  has  when  it  comes  to  us.  The 
largest,  heaviest,  and  least  shrivelled,  is  the  best. 

The  Pepper  plant  flourishes  in  the  islands  of  Java,  Suma¬ 
tra,  and  Ceylon;  and  more  particularly  on  the  Malabar  coast. 
It  is  planted  from  shoots  which  produce  no  fruit  till  the  end 
of  three  years,  but  bear  so  plentifully  the  three  succeeding 
years,  that  some  plants  yield  from  six  to  seven  pounds  of 
Pepper.  The  shrub  then  declines  so  fast  that  in  twelve  years 
time  it  ceases  bearing. 

The  common  White  Pepper  is  factitious,  being  prepared 
from  the  black,  in  the  following  manner:  they  steep  this  in 
sea-water,  exposed  to  the  heat  of  the  sun  for  several  days, 
till  the  rind  or  outer  bark  loosens ;  they  then  take  it  out, 
and  when.it  is  half  dry  rub  it  till  the  rind  falls  off;  then 
they  dry  the  white  fruit,  and  the  remains  of  the  rind  blow 
off  like  chaff.  A  great  deal  of  the  heat  of  the  Pepper  is 
taken  off  by  this  process,  so  that  the  white  kind  is  more  fit 
for  many  purposes  than  the  black.  There  is  however  a  sort 
of  native  Avhite  Pepper  produced  on  a  species  of  the  same 
plant,  which  is  much  better  than  the  factitious. 

The  long  Pepper  is  a  dried  fruit  of  an  inch,  or  an  inch 
and  a  half  long,  and  about  the  thickness  of  a  large  goose- 


261 


quill:  it  is  of  a  brownish  grey  colour,  cylindrical  in  figure, 
and  said  to  be  produced  on  a  plant  of  the  same  genus. 

The  people  of  the  East  Indies  esteem  Pepper  as  a  stomachic, 
and  drink  a  strong  infusion  of  it  in  water,  by  way  of  creating 
an  appetite.  They  have  also  a  way  of  making  a  fiery  spirit 
of  fermented  fresh  Pepper  with  water,  which  they  use  for 
the  same  purposes.  * 

The  piper  amalgo  or  black  Pepper,  and  the  piper  inequale 
or  long  Pepper  of  Jamaica,  are  indigenous.  The  whole 
plant  of  the  former  has  the  exaft  taste  of  the  East  India  black 
Pepper;  the  fruit  of  the  latter  is  similar  to  the  East  India 
long  Pepper.  Both  these  plants  may,  perhaps,  hereafter  be 
deemed  worthy  of  attention. 

Pepper  that  is  sold  ground  is  very  apt  to  be  sophisticated; 
the  black  with  burnt  crusts  of  bread,  &c.  the  white  with 
beaten  rice. 

PERNAMBUCCO  WOOD;  see  Brazilwood* 
PERUVIAN  BARK. 


F.  Quinquina. 

G.  Chinarinde. 

D.  Kina ,  Quinquina. 

I.  China,  Cbinacchina. 

S.  Quina ,  Quina-Quina,  Ccr- 
teza  de  Loja. 

P.  Quina ,  Quinquina. 


DA.  Kina,  China,  Chinabark . 
SW.  Feberbark ,  China . 

POL.  Kwinknuinna. 

R.  China,  Chinchina. 

L.  Quinquina ,  China ,  Cortex 
Peruvianas. 


Bark  is  the  produce  of  a  tree  called  cinchona.  Linnaeus 
describes  two  species:  first  the  corymbifera,  corymbbearing, 
or  white  Peruvian  Bark,  with  oblong  lanceolate  leaves,  and 
axillary  corymbs;  and  secondly  the  officinalis,  or  coloured 
Peruvian  Bark,  with  elliptic  leaves,  downy  underneath,  and 
the  leaves  of  the  corolla  woolly.  Both  species  are  natives  of 
Peru,  where  the  trees  attain  the  height  of  fifteen  to  twenty 
feet.  The  former  particularly  abounds  in  the  hilly  parts 
of  Quito,  growing  promiscuously  in  the  forests,  and  is  spon¬ 
taneously  propagated  from  its  seeds.  Both  sorts  have  also 
been  found  in  the  province  of  Santa  Fe. 

The  Bark  has  some  odour,  to  most  people  not  unpleasant, 
and  very  perceptible  in  the  distilled  water,  in  which  floating 
globules,  like  essential  oil,  have  been  observed.  Its  taste 
is  bitter  and  astringent,  accompanied  with  a  degree  of  pun¬ 
gency,  and  leaving  a  considerably  lasting  impression  on  the 
tongue. 


262 


According  to  some,  the  virtue  of  the  Bark  was  first  dis¬ 
covered  by  a  Peruvian,  who  in  his  fits  of  the  ague  taking  the 
habit  of  seizing  and  sucking  a  branch  of  the  tree,  found 
himself  thereby  relieved,  and  at  last  cured.  About  the  year 
1640,  the  lady  of  the  Spanish  Viceroy,  the  Comitessa  del 
Cinchon,  was  cured  by  the  Bark,  which  has  therefore  been 
called  cortex,  or  pulvis  Comitessse  Cinchona,  Chinachina,  or 
Chinchina,  Kinakina  or  Kinkina,  Quinaquina  or  Quinquina; 
and  from  the  interest  which  the  Cardinal  de  Lugo  and  the 
Jesuit  fathers  took  in  its  distribution,  it  has  been  called  cor¬ 
tex  or  pulvis  Cardinalis  de  Lugo,  Jesuiticus,  Patrum,  &c. 

On  its  first  introduction  into  Europe  it  was  reprobated  by 
many  eminent  physicians;  and  at  different  periods,  long  after, 
it  was  considered  a  dangerous  remedy;  but  its  character  in 
process  of  time  became  very  universally  established.  For  a 
number  of  years,  the  Bark  which  is  rolled  up  into  short  thick 
quills,  with  a  rough  coat,  and  a  bright  cinnamon  colour  in 
the  inside,  which  broke  brittle,  and  was  sound,  had  an 
aromatic  flavour,  a  bitterish  astringent  taste,  with  a  degree 
of  aromatic  warmth,  was  esteemed  the  best;  though  some 
esteemed  the  large  pieces  as  of  equal  goodness. 

During  the  time  of  the  war  before  last,  in  die  year  1779, 
the  Hussar  frigate  took  a  Spanish  ship  loaded  principally 
with  Peruvian  Bark,  which  was  much  larger,  thicker,  and 
of  a  deeper  reddish  colour  than  the  Bark  in  common  use. 
Soon  after  it  was  brought  to  London  it  was  tried  in  St.  Bar¬ 
tholomew’s,  and  other  Hospitals  about  town.  In  July,  1782, 
Dr.  William  Saunders  published  an  account  of  this  red  Bark; 
in  which  he  says,  that  the  small  quill  Bark  used  in  England, 
is  either  the  Bark  of  young  trees,  or  of  the  twigs  or  branches 
,  of  the  old  ones;  and  that  the  large  Bark,  called  the  red  Bark, 
from  its  deep  colour,  is  the  Bark  of  the  trunk  of  the  old 
trees:  and  he  mentions  as  Mr.  Arnot,  who  himself  gathered 
the  Bark  from  the  trees  in  Peru,  and  Mons.  Condamine, 
that  taking  the  bark  from  an  old  tree  effectually  kills  it;  but 
that  most  of  the  young  trees  which  are  barked  recover,  and 
continue  healthy;  and  that  for  these  reasons,  the  Spaniards 
now  barked  the  younger  trees  for  foreign  markets,  though 
they  still  imported  into  Spain  some  of  the  Bark  of  the  old 
trees,  which  they  esteemed  much  more  efficacious,  than 
what  was  got  from  the  young.  Dr.  Saunders  himself  thinks, 
that  it  is  not  only  stronger  and  more  resinous,  but  likewise 
more  efficacious  and  certain  in  its  effects  than  the  com¬ 
mon  bark,  and  had  cured  many  agues  after  the  other  had 
failed. 


263 


The  pale  bark  is  brought  to  us  in  pieces  of  different  sizes, 
either  flat  or  quilled,  and  the  powder  is  rather  of  a  lighter 
colour  than  that  of  cinnamon.  The  red  is  generally  in  much 
larger,  thicker,  flattish  pieces,  but  sometimes  also  in  the 
form  of  quills,  and  its  powder  is  reddish,  like  that  of  Ar¬ 
menian  bole.  As  already  observed,  it  is  much  more  resinous, 
and  possesses  the  sensible  qualities  of  the  cinchona  in  a  much 
higher  degree  than  the  other  sorts.  The  red  Bark  is  heavy, 
firm,  sound,  and  dry;  friable  between  the  teeth,  does  not 
separate  into  fibres;  and  breaks,  not  shivery,  but  short,  close, 
and  smooth.  It  consists  of  three  layers ;  the  outer  is  thin, 
rugged,  of  a  whitish  brown  colour,  but  frequently  covered 
with  mossy  matter:  the  middle  is  thicker,  more  compact, 
darker  coloured,  very  resinous,  brittle,  and  yields  first  to 
the  pestle:  the  inmost  is  more  woody,  fibrous,  and  of  a 
brighter  red. 

The  Peruvian  Bark  is  prescribed  for  many  diseases,  chiefly 
as  a  powerful  astringent,  tonic,  and  antiseptic. 


PETROL,  OIL  OF  PETRE,  ROCK  OIL. 


F.  Petr  ole. 

G,  Steinol. 
D.  Steenbli. 
I.  Peiroleo. 


SW.  Stenolja. 

POL.  Skalney  oley. 
R.  Kamennoe  masslo. 
L.  Petroleum . 


DA.  Steettolje. 

Petrol  is  a  mineral  oil  supposed  to  issue  out  of  the  clefts 
of  rocks,  and  found  floating  on  the  waters  of  certain  springs. 
It  differs  by  its  liquidity  only  from  bitumens,  like  esphattum, 
jet,  &c.  Hitherto  there  has  been  but  little  Petrol  found, 
except  in  hot  countries,  as  Persia,  the  southern  provinces  of 
France,  and  the  dtichy  of  Modena  in  Italy. 

The  naphta,  which  is  either  a  liquid,  or  at  least  a  very 
soft  bitumen,  is  much  the  same  with  Petrol. 


PILCHARDS 


Are  fish,  which  have  a  general  likeness  to  the  herring,  but 
differ  in  some  particulars  very  essentially.  The  body  of 
the  Pilchard  is  less  compressed  than  that  of  the  herring, 
being  thicker  and  rounder:  the  nose  is  shorter  in  proportion, 
and  turns  up,  the  under  jaw  is  also  shorter.  The  dorsal  fin 
of  the  Pilchard  is  placed  exactly  in  the  centre  of  gravity,  so 
that  when  taken  up  by  it,  the  body  preserves  an  equilibrium; 


264 


whereas  that  of  the  herring  dips  at  the  head.  The  Pilchard 
in  general  is  less,  than  the  herring,  but  it  is  fatter,  or  more 
full  of  oil. 

The  Pilchard  appears  in  vast  shoals  off  the  Cornish  coasts 
about  the  middle  of  July,  disappearing  the  beginning  of 
winter.  Their  winter  retreat  and  their  motives  for  migrating 
are  the  same  with  those  of  the  herring.  The  approach  of 
the  Pilchard  is  known  by  much  the  same  signs  as  those  that 
indicate  the  arrival  of  the  herring.  Persons  called  in  Corn¬ 
wall,  huers,  are  placed  in  the  cliffs  to  point  out  to  the  boats 
stationed  off  the  land,  the  course  of  the  fish. 

The  emoluments  that  accrue  to  the  county  of  Cornwall 
by  the  Pilchard  fishery  are  very  considerable.  But  a  small 
part  of  the  Pilchards  taken  here  are  consumed  in  the  county, 
notwithstanding  they  are  very  delicious  eating.  The  greatest 
part  are  salted,  and  placed  together  in  large  heaps,  where 
they  lie  for  several  days,  under  a  pressure  of  large  stone 
weights,  by  which  means  the  fat  and  oil  are  drained  from 
them  in  large  quantities,  into  proper  vessels;  then  they  pickle 
and  press  them  into  cases  for  exportation.  Thousands  are- 
employed  in  catching  and  curing  the  fish,  and  the  fishermen 
and  merchants  make  large  gains  in  sending  them  to  Italy, 
Spain,  and  France.  The  poor  are  fed  with  the  offals  of  the 
captures,  and  the  land  is  manured  with  the  refuse  of  the  fish 
and  fat.  A  considerable  quantity  of  fish  is  also  annually 
used  for  making  Pilchard  oil. 

The  number  of  Pilchards  exported  yearly  from  the  four 
ports  of  Fowey,  Falmouth,  Penzance,  and  St.  Ives,  ac¬ 
cording  to  an  average  of  ten  years,  from  1747  to  1756  was, 
from 

Fowey .  1,732  hhds. 

Falmouth . 14,631*  ditto 

Penzance  and  Mountsbay  .  .  .12,149i  ditto 

St.  Ives .  1,282  ditto 


Total  29,795  hhds. 


263 


PIMENTO,  ALLSPICE. 


F.  Piment. 

G.  Pimento ,  'Jamaica  pfeffer. 
D.  Piement ,  Jainaica  peper. 

I .  Pepe  garofanato. 

S.  Pimienta  de  Jamaica . 


DA.  Piment,  Allehaande. 
SW.  Kryddpeppar. 

POL.  Pieprz  z  Jamaiki. 
R.  Anglin  skoi  perez. 

L.  Piper  Jumaicense, 


P.  AmomOy  Pimenta  da  Ja¬ 
maica, 

The  Pimento,  Allspice,  or  Jamaica  Pepper  tree,  myrtus 
pimenta,  is  a  native  of  New  Spain,  and  the  West  India 
islands.  In  Jamaica  it  grows  very  plentifully,  and  delights  in 
a  hilly  situation.  It  grows  above  thirty  feet  in  height,  and 
two  in  circumference,  is  very  straight,  and  covered  with  a 
greyish,  smooth,  and  shining  bark.  Its  leaves,  which  have 
a  pleasant  smell,  resemble  in  form  and  disposition  those  of  the 
laurel ;  and  the  branches  in  June,  July,  and  August,  put 
forth  clusters  of  lowers,  entirely  similar  to  those  of  the 
common  myrtle. 

The  berries  are  generally  gathered  in  July,  while  yet  green; 
for  if  they  are  suffered  to  remain  till  full  ripe,  they  will  not 
cure.  They  are  when  ripe  of  a  dark  purple  colour,  and  full 
of  a  sweet  pulp,  which  the  birds  devour  greedily,  and  mu¬ 
ting  the  seeds  afterwards, ,  propagate  these  trees  in  all  parts 
of  the  woods. 

When  gathered,  they  are  laid  on  cloths  spread  over  terraced 
floors.  During  the  first  and  second  day  they  are  turned  often, 
that  the  whole  may  be  more  exposed  to  the  sun,  but  when  they 
begin  to  dry  they  are  frequently  winnowed,  still  exposing  them 
to  the  sun  all  day,  and  removing  them  under  covers  every 
evening,  till  they  are  sufficiently  dried,  which  happens  in  ten 
or  twelve  days,  and  is  known  by  the  darkness  of  their  com¬ 
plexion,  and  the  ratling  of  the  seeds;  they  appear  at  this  time 
wrinkled,  and  have  changed  from  green  to  a  very  dark  brown; 
and  in  this  state,  being  ready  for  the  market,  they  are  stowed 
in  bags  and  casks.  Some  planters  kiln-dry  them  with  great 
success,  and  it  seems  indeed  a  most  eligible  method,  where 
from  the  abundance  of  the  crop,  despatch  and  security  against 
rain  are  very  essential. 

As  there  is  so  great  an  affinity  between  this  and  the  true 
clove,  it  has  been  proposed  as  worthy  of  trial,  if  the  fruit, 
when  first  formed,  or  the  flowers  picked  off  the  tree,  and 
dried,  might  not  answer  the  same  purpose  as  as  the  Asiatic. 
The  more  odoriferous  and  small  the  berries  are  the  better  they 
are  reckoned.  The  leaves  and  bark  of  the  tree  are  full  of 


264* 


aromatic  inflammable  particles,  for  which  reason  the  growers 
are  extremely  cautious  not  to  suffer  any  fire  to  be  made  near 
the  walks,  for  if  it  once  should  catch  the  trees  they  would  con¬ 
sume  with  great  fury.  The  berries  have  a  resemblance  in 
smell  and  taste  to  cloves,  juniper  berries,  cinnamon,  and 
pepper,  or  rather  a  peculiar  mixture,  somewhat  akin  to 
them  all;  whence  their  name  of  Allspice. 

Pimento  is  chiefly  imported  into  Britain  from  Jamaica, 
where  it  is  one  of  the  staple  articles.  That  growing  in  the 
Spanish  dominions  is  of  a  larger  berry,  weaker  aromatic  fla¬ 
vour,  and  consequently  inferior  in  quality.  The  quantity 
exported  from  Jamaica  may  be  estimated  on  an  average  at 
two  millions  of  pounds  annually. 

V 

PINCHBECK;  see  Copper. 

PISTACIA  NUTS. 


F.  Pi st aches. 

G.  Pistazien,  Pistaschen. 
D.  Pistasjes. 

I.  Pistacchi ,  Fastucchi . 

S.  A'Jocigos. 


P.  Pis  facias,  Fist  ices 
DA.  pistacier ,  Pistaser 
SW.  Pistacier. 

POL.  Pisfacye. 

L.  Pistaciae. 


Pistacia  Nuts  are  the  fruit  of  the  pistacia  terebinthus. 
This  tree  grows  naturally  in  Arabia,  Persia,  and  Syria,  also 
in  Sicily,  whence  the  nuts  are  annually  brought  to  us.  The 
fruit  loses  much  of  its  beauty  by  drying,  but  improves  per¬ 
haps  in  flavour.  The  tree  when  laden  with  clusters  of  the 
ripe  smooth  nuts,  of  a  beautiful  pale  blush  colour,  makes  a 
fine  appearance.  It  seldom  exceeds  thirty  feet  in  height, 
and  is  often  not  more  than  twenty  ;  the  trunk  which  is  pro¬ 
portionally  short,  is  about  three  or  three  feet  and  a  half  in 
circumference.  Some  of  these  trees  have  male,  and  others 
female  flowers,  and  some  both  male  and  female  on  the  same 
tree.  The  female  flowers  come  out  in  clusters  from  the 
sides  of  the  branches:  they  have  no  petals,  but  a  large  oval 
germen,  supporting  three  reflexed  styles;  and  are  succeeded 
by  oval  nuts.  These  nuts  are  moderately  large,  containing 
a  kernel  of  a  pale  greenish  colour,  covered  with  an  outer 
husk  of  different  colours,  from  almost  white  to  a  red.  They 
have  a  pleasant,  sweet,  un&uous  taste,  resembling  that  of 
almonds;  and  they  abound  with  a  sweet  and  well  tasted  oil, 
which  they  yield  in  great  abundance  on  being  pressed,  after 
bruising  them.  They  are  wholesome  and  nutritive,  and  in 
medicine  are  classed  amongst  the  analeptics  and  restoratives. 


265 


PIT-COAL,  STONE  COAL. 


F.  Cbarlons  de  terre . 

G.  Steinkohlen. 

D.  Steenkoolen. 

I.  Carbons  fossili. 

S.  Carbones  de  tierra,  Car- 


P.  Cargoes  de  terra  ou  de  /<?- 


dr  a. 

DA.  SfyyikulL 
SW.  Stenkol. 


bones  de  pie  dr  a . 


R.  Ugolje  kamennoe. 
L.  Lithanthrax. 


Pit-Coal  is  a  black,  solid,  compact,  brittle,  and  inflam¬ 
mable  mass,  of  moderate  hardness,  lamellated  structure, 
more  or  less  shining,  but  seldom  capable  of  a  good  polish, 
and  does  not  melt  when  heated.  It  is  commonly  used  for 
fuel,  and  according  to  Ivirwan,  consists  of  petrol  or  as- 
phaltum,  intimately  mixed  with  a  small  portion  of  earth, 
chiefly  argillaceous,  and  frequently  with  pyrites. 

The  inland  Coal  trade,  that  is,  carrying  Coals  from  New¬ 
castle,  Sunderland,  Blith,  and  other  adjacent  places,  in  the 
North  of  England,  as  also  from  the  Frith  of  Edinburgh,  and 
other  neighbouring  parts  of  the  city  of  London,  and  the  in¬ 
termediate  port  towns,  as  well  as  to  the  North  of  Edinburgh 
and  Newcastle,  and  up  the  channel  as  high  as  Portsmouth 
west,  employs  abundance  of  shipping  and  seamen;  insomuch, 
that  in  a  time  of  urgent  necessity,  the  coalery  navigation 
alone  has  been  able  to  supply  the  government  with  a  body  of 
seamen  for  the  royal  navy,  able  to  man  a  considerable  fleet 
at  a  very  short  notice. 

The  produce  of  Coals  exported,  which  amounts  to  a  very 
considerable  sum  annually,  besides  being  profitable  to  the 
owners,  merchants,  and  mariners,  is  so  much  clear  gain  to 
the  nation.  The  value  also  of  this  commodity  as  a  conve- 
niency  of  life  is  a  great  consideration,  and  a  multitude  of 
manufa&ures  could  not  be  carried  on  but  by  the  help  and 
cheapness  of  the  best  Coals.  Lastly,  thousands  of  labori¬ 
ous  people  are  employed  in  and  about  the  mines,  in  convey¬ 
ing  the  Coals  to  the  ports,  and  shipping  them,  in  the  whole¬ 
sale  and  retail  trade,  & c. 

As  to  the  use  of  the  common  fuel  which  we  call  Coals, 
the  Romans  in  Italy  seem  to  have  been  entirely  ignorant  of 
it;  which  is  the  more  easily  accounted  for,  as  there  are  no 
beds  of  Coals  in  the  compass  of  Italy.  But  the  primeval 
Britons  appear  to  have  used  it.  In  the  precincts  of  Man¬ 
chester  particularly,  they  could  not  have  remained  unappri¬ 
sed  of  the  combustible  which  surrounded  them  so  abundant- 


L  1 


266 


ly;  the  currents  there  bringing  frequently  down  fragments 
of  Coals  from  the  mountains.  Not  less  than  forty  pieces  of 
Coals,  and  a  quantity  of  slack,  were  discovered  sometime 
since  in  the  sand  under  the  Roman  road  to  Ribchester,  when 
both  were  dug  up  at  the  construction  of  a  house  in  Quay 
street.  These  Coals  must  have  been  lodged  upon  the  spot 
before  the  road  of  the  Romans  covered  it.  It  seems  there¬ 
fore  certain,  that  before  the  arrival  of  the  Romans,  the 
Britains  were  acquainted  with  the  extensive  beds  of  fuel 
with  which  the  precinCts  of  Manchester  are  so  happily  stored. 
But  for  ages  after  the  discovery,  wood  seems  to  have  con¬ 
stituted  the  general  firing  of  the  nation,  and  would  naturally 
continue  so,  as  long  as  the  forests  and  thickets  presented 
themselves  so  ready  to  the  hand.  In  852  a  grant  was  made 
of  some  lands  by  the  Abbey  of  Peterborough,  under  the  re¬ 
servation  of  certain  loans  and  payments  in  kind,  to  the  mo¬ 
nastery;  as  sixty  cart  loads  of  wood,  and  twelve  of  Pit-Coal, 
&c.  by  which  we  see  the  quantity  of  Coal  was  only  one  cart 
load  to  five  of  wood.  The  first  time  we  find  Coals  publickly 
noticed  is  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  who  in  the  year  1272 
granted  a  charter  to  the  town  of  Newcastle,  giving  the 
inhabitants  a  license  to  dig  Coals.  They  were  however  not 
brought  into  common  use  till  the  reign  of  Carles  I.  and  were 
then  sold  about  17s.  a  chaldron.  In  some  years  after  the  re¬ 
storation  there  were  about  200,000  chaldrons  burnt  in  Lon¬ 
don;  in  1670  about  270,000;  at  the  revolution,  upwards  of 
300,000;  and  at  present  above  600,000  chaldrons  are  annu¬ 
ally  consumed.  In  Ireland,  though  they  have  Coal  of  their 
own,  yet  they  annually  import  to  the  value  of  £.30,000  from 
England,  and  £.12,000  from  Scotland. 

There  are  several  other  countries  in  Europe  which  possess 
considerable  Coal  mines;  as  France,  Brabant,  Liege,  Ger¬ 
many,  and  Sweden.  Also  on  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  there  has  been  Coal  discovered,  and  wrought,  in 
Newfoundland,  Cape-Breton,  Canada,  and  some  of  the  New- 
England  provinces  and  in  Virginia.  But  in  all  these  coun¬ 
tries  the  Coal  is  of  a  quality  much  inferior  to  the  British,  and 
entirely  unfit  to  be  used  in  many  manufactories;  so  that  they 
are  obliged  to  import  great  quantities  from  Britain  for  the 
use  of  their  manufactories  of  iron,  &c. 

If  we  consider  Coals  according  to  their  degree  of  inflam¬ 
mability  they  are  distinguishable  in  three  kinds :  1 ,  The  least 
inflammable  kind  is  that  known  by  the  name  of  Welsh  Coal, 
found  in  Wales;  Kilkenny  Coal,  found  near  Kilkenny,  in 
Ireland;  and  blind  or  deaf  coal  found  in  many  parts  of  Scot- 


267 


iand  and  England.  This  Coal  takes  a  considerable  degree  of 
heat  to  kindle  it,  but  when  once  thoroughly  ignited  will  burn 
a  long  time;  it  remains  in  the  fire  in  separate  pieces  without 
sticking  together  or  caking:  it  produces  neither  flame  or 
smoke,  and  makes  no  cinder,  but  burns  to  a  white  stony 
slag.  It  makes  a  hot  glowing  fire,  like  charcoals  or  cinders, 
and  emits  effluvia  of  a  suffocating  nature,  which  renders  it 
unfit  for  burning  in  dwelling  houses,  its  chief  use  being 
amongst  malsters,  dyers,  & c.  for  drying  their  commodities. 

2.  Open  burning  Coaly  soon  kindles,  making  a  hot  pleasant 
fire,  but  is  soon  consumed:  it  produces  both  smoke  and  flame 
in  abundance:  but  lies  open  in  the  fire  and  does  not  cake 
together  sp  as  to  form  cinders,  its  surface  being  burnt  to 
ashes  before  it  is  thoroughly  calcined  in  the  midst;  from 
this  it  has  its  name  of  an  open  burning  Coal ;  it  burns  to 
white,  or  light  brown  ashes.  Of  this  kind  is  cannel-coal, 
jet,  parrot,  splint,  and  most  of  the  Coals  in  Scotland. 

3.  Close  burning  Coaly  kindles  very  quickly,  makes  a  very 
hot  fire,  melts  and  runs  together  like  bitumen,  the  very 
smallest  culm  making  the  finest  cinders,  which  being  tho¬ 
roughly  burnt,  are  porous  and  light,  as  a  pumice  stone;  and 
when  broke  are  of  a  shining  lead  colour.  It  makes  a  more 
durable  fire  than  any  other  Coal,  and  finally  turns  to  brown 
or  reddish  coloured  heavy  ashes.  Of  this  kind  are  the  New¬ 
castle  and  several  other  of  the  English  Coals,  and  the  smi¬ 
thy  Coals  of  Scotland,  The  open  burning  and  the  close 
bnrning  Coal  mixed  together  make  a  more  profitable  fire  for 
domestic  uses  than  either  of  them  separate. 


PITCH. 


F.  Poix. 

G.  Pech. 

D.  Peky  Brat. 
I.  Pece. 

S.  Pez.  ' 

P.  Brea. 


DA.  Beg. 

SW.  Beck. 

POL  Smola. 

R.  Smola  gustaja. 

L.  Pix. 


Pitch  is  a  tenaceous  oily  substance,  drawn  from  pines  and 
firs,  and  used  in  shipping,  medicine,  and  various  arts.  It 
is  tar  inspissated  by  boiling  it  over  a  slow  fire.  For  further 
particulars  see  Tar . 


268 


PLATINA, 

Is  the  heaviest  of  all  metals,  its  specific  gravity  being  to 
that  of  water  as  twenty-three  to  one;  that  of  gold  being 
only  nineteen.  Its  colour  is  that  of  the  purest  silver.  The 
very  small  globules  of  it  are  extremely  malleable;  but  when 
many  of  these  are  collected  together,  they  can  scarcely  be  so 
perfectly  fused  as  to  preserve  the  same  degree  of  malleability. 
They  are  not  affeCted  by  the  magnet  in  the  least,  nor  can 
they  be  dissolved  in  any  simple  menstruum,  excepting  de- 
phlogisticated  marine  acid.  Platina  however,  as  it  is  common¬ 
ly  met  with,  is  mixed  with  many  foreign  substances,  as  gold, 
mercury,  and  blackish,  ferruginous,  sandy  particles.  In  this 
state  it  has  the  form  of  small  grains,  its  plates  of  a  bluish 
black,  whose  colour  is  intermediate  betwixt  those  of  silver 
.  and  iron. 

The  great  specific  gravity  of  Platina  has  rendered  it  a  very 
desirable  matter  for  such  as  wish  to  adulterate  the  precious 
metals,  and  can  procure  the  Platina  easily.  This  however 
can  only  be  done  in  South  America,  where  Platina  is  met 
with  in  plenty.  In  Europe  the  scarcity  of  Platina  renders 
it  a  more  valuable  objedf  than  even  gold  itself.  Fears  of  this 
fraud  have  undoubtedly  given  occasion  to  the  prohibition  of 
exporting  it  from  America.  It  is  however  not  difficult  to 
discover  the  adulteration  by  precipitation  with  green  vitriol, 
which  throws  down  the  gold,  and  leaves  the  Platina  united 
with  the  menstruum;  and  by  various  other  methods,  but 
chiefly  by  its  greater  specific  gravity. 

Platina  has  been  remarkable  ever  since  its  first  discovery 
for  being  the  most  infusible  substance  in  the  world.  It  has 
been  kept  in  the  most  violent  heat  of  a  glass  furnace  for  seve¬ 
ral  days  without  any  alteration.  This  refractory  metal  was 
first  melted  with  a  large  burning  mirror.  It  lias  since  been 
found  capable  not  only  of  fusion,  but  of  vitrification,  by  the 
eleCtric  fire;  but  de  Lisle  was  the  first  who  was  able  to  melt 
it  with  the  heat  of  a  common  forge,  when  exposed  to  the 
blast  of  double  bellows  in  a  double  crucible.  It  must  be 
observed  however,  that  this  fusion  was  not  performed  on 
common  Platina,  but  on  such  as  had  been  dissolved  in  aqua- 
regia,  and  precipitated  by  means  of  sal  ammoniac.  This  pre¬ 
cipitate,  or  even  crude  Platina,  is  fusible  by  the  assistance  of 
fluxes,  as,  white  glass,  borax,  and  charcoal. 


269 


PORPHYRY. 


F.  Porpbyre , 

G.  Perphyr . 


DA.  Porpbyr. 
SW.  Porpbyr. 
POL.  Parfir. 
R.  Porfir. 


D.  Porjier  steen. 


I.  Porjido . 
S.  Porjido. 


L.  Porphyrius  lapis. 


P.  Porjido. 

Porphyry  includes  those  stones  which  contain  either  felt- 
spar,  schoerl,  quarz,  or  mica,  with  other  species  of  crystal¬ 
lized  stone,  on  a  siliceous  or  calcareous  ground.  It  is  found 
of  several  different  colours,  as  green,  deep  red,  purple,  black, 
dark  brown  and  grey. 

The  Egyptian  Porphyry  is  a  most  elegant  mass  of  an  ex¬ 
tremely  firm  and  compact  structure,  remarkably  heavy,  and 
of  a  fine  strong  purple,  variegated  more  or  less,  with  pale 
red  and  white.  In  Upper  Egypt,  and  in  Arabia  Petraea, 
the  hard  pale  red  Porphyry  is  also  found  in  surprizing  quan¬ 
tities:  it  is  variegated  with  black,  white,  and  green,  takes 
a  high  polish,  and  emulates  all  the  qualities  of  the  Oriental 
Porphyry. 

The  hard,  red  lead  coloured  Porphyry  variegated  with 
black,  white,  and  green,  is  a  most  beautiful  and  valuable 
substance.  It  has  the  hardness  and  all  the  other  chara<5lers 
of  the  Oriental  Porphyry,  and  even  greatly  excels  it  in 
brightness,  beauty,  and  variegation  of  its  colours.  It  is 
found  in  great  quantities  in  the  island  of  Minorca,  and  is 
well  worth  importing,  being  greatly  superior  to  all  the 
Italian  marbles. 


PORTLAND  STONE 


I»  a  free  stone  found  in  Portland,  a  peninsula  in  Dorset¬ 
shire.  It  is  mostly  brought  to  London  for  the  structure  of 
the  finest  edifices.  St.  Paul’s  church  in  particular  was  built 
therewith. 


270 


POT-ASHES. 


F.  Potasse. 

G.  Pottasche, 
D.  Pot iis . 

I.  Potassa. 

S.  Potassa. 


DA.  Pottaske . 
SW.  Potaska. 
POL.  Potasz. 
R  Potasch. 


L.  Cineres  cla<vellati , 


P.  Potassa. 

Pot-ashes  are  an  impure  fixed  alkaline  salt,  of  the  colour 
of  iron  stone,  or  paler.  They  are  obtained  by  burning  birch 
or  alder  by  a  slow  fire  to  ashes,  and  making  them  into  a 
paste  with  water.  This  paste  is  plastered  over  a  row  of 
green  pine  and  fir  logs.  Above  that  is  laid,  transversely, 
another  row  of  the  same,  and  that  likewise  is  plastered  over. 
In  this  way  they  continue  building  and  plastering  till  the 
pile  be  of  considerable  height.  This  pile  is  set  on  fire,  and 
whenever  the  ashes  begin  to  run,  it  is  overturned,  and  the 
melted  ashes  are  beat  with  flexible  sticks,  so  that  they  in¬ 
crust  the  logs  of  wood,  and  become  as  hard  as  stone.  This 
seems  to  be  the  method  of  making  Pot-ashes  in  Sweden, 
Poland,  &c.  The  Russia  Pot-ashes  are  stronger,  and  accord¬ 
ing  to  Sir  Peter  Warren,  the  best  woods  for  making  them 
are,  oak,  ash,  poplar,  elm,  hazle,  and  beach.  They  must 
be  cut  in  winter,  split,  and  stacked  to  dry.  After  twelve 
months  in  warm  open  weather,  the  wood  must  be  burnt  on 
a  brick  hearth  by  a  slow  fire,  in  a  kiln  or  close  place;  the 
ashes  must  be  sifted  through  two  sieves,  one  finer  than  the 
other,  and  then  put  up  in  brick  troughs  or  wooden  backs, 
covered  with  rain  or  river  water,  and  must  remain  well 
mashed  and  incorporated  for  five  months.  Brick  furnaces, 
shaped  like  bakers’  ovens,  must  be  heated  with  a  strong  fire 
of  oak  or  ash,  burning  night  and  day;  and  the  prepared 
ashes  must  gradually  be  thrown  on  the  fire,  when  they  will 
run  into  metal  like  lead:  the  fire  must  not  go  out  till  the 
furnace  is  nigh  filled  with  Pot-ashes.  The  ashes  must  then 
be  broken,  to  be  taken  out,  but  the  larger  the  pieces,  the 
better ;  they  must  be  preserved  from  the  air  in  tight  casks, 
the  large  pieces  by  themselves  and  the  dust  by  itself. 

Pot-ashes  are  principally  used  by  the  soap-boiler,  glass- 
.  maker,  fuller,  &c. 

The  denomination  of  Pot-ashes  is  said  to  originate  from 
their  formerly  having  been  prepared  or  shipped  in  pots,  to 
prevent  their  dissolving  from  the  access  of  air. 


271 


The  greatest  quantities  of  Pot-ashes  come  from  Russia, 
Prussia,  Poland,  and  North  America. 

Kelp  is  a  sort  of  ashes  made  use  of  in  many  of  the  glass 
works  of  this  country,  particularly  for  green  glass.  It  is 
the  calcined  ashes  of  a  plant  called  by  the  same  name;  and 
in  some  places,  of  sea-thongs  or  lace's,  a  sort  of  thick  leaved 
fucus  or  sea-wrack.  These  ashes,  like  Barilla,  contain  the  \ 
mineral  alkali. 

The  kelp-plant  is  thrown  on  the  rocks  and  shores  in  great  0 
abundance,  and  in  the  summer  months  is  raked  together, 
and  dried  as  hay  in  the  sun  and  wind,  and  afterwards  burnt 
to  the  ashes  called  kelp.  The  process  of  making  it  is  thus: 
the  rocks,  which  are  dry  at  low-water,  are  the  beds  of  great 
quantities  of  sea  weed;  which  is  cut,  carried  to  the  beach 
and  dried:  a  hollow  is  dug  into  the  ground  three  or  four 
feet  wide ;  round  its  margin  are  laid  a  row  of  stones,  on 
which  the  sea-weed  is  placed,  and  set  on  fire  within;  and 
quantities  of  this  fuel  being  continually  heaped  upon  the 
circle,  there  is  in  the  centre  a  perpetual  flame,  from  which 
a  liquid  like  melted  metal  drops  into  the  hollow  beneath; 
when  full,  as  it  commonly  is  before  the  close  of  the  day, 
all  heterogeiafeous  matter  being  removed,  the  kelp  is  wrought 
with  iron  rakes,  and  brought  to  an  uniform  consistence,  in 
a  state  of  fusion.  When  cool,  it  consolidates  into  a  heavy, 
dark  coloured,  alkaline  substance,  which  undergoes  in  the 
glass-houses  a  second  vitrification,  and  assumes  a  perfect 
transparency. 

The  greatest  quantity  of  kelp  is  prepared  in  the  Scilly 
islands. 

POTATOES. 

F.  Pommes  de  terre. 

G.  Kartoffeln. 

D.  Aardappelen . 

I.  Pat  ate ,  Pomi  di  'Terra . 

S-  Pat  at  as  manchegas . 

P.  Batatas  de  terra ,  Pomos  de 

terra . 

Potatoes,  it  is  generally  thought,  came  originally  from 
North  America.  They  were  first,  we  are  told,  introduced 
into  Ireland  in  the  year  1565,  and  from  thence  into  England. 

It  was  forty  years  after  their  introduction  however,  before 
they  were  much  cultivated  about  London;  and  not  before 
1663  they  came  into  general  use.  The  utility  of  Potatoes, 


DA.  Patater ,  'Jordeebler . 
SW.  Potatos ,  Jordpdron . 

R.  Jabloki  Semlenite ,  Kar - 
tojiu. 

L.  Tuber  a  • virginiana  escu¬ 
lent  a. 


1 


% 


272 


as  food  for  man  and  cattle,  is  well  established.  Instances  of 
the  amazing  increase  of  Potatoes  are  very  numerous.  In 
the  Gentleman’s  Magazine  for  1757  we  are  told,  that  from 
one  slice  of  a  Potatoe,  planted  by  S.  Mc  Hoy,  near  Tuam, 
in  Ireland,  there  was  a  produce  of  nine  hundred  and  sixty- 
five  Potatoes.  This  article  is  exported  to  Gibraltar,  the 
Mediterranean,  and  the  West  Indies., 


PRINCES  METAL*,  see  Copper , 
PRUSSIAN  BLUE,  Berlin  blue. 


F.  Bleu  de  Prune, 

G  Berlinerblau. 

D.  Berlyns  blaau<w . 

J.  Azzuro  PrussianOy  o  di  Ber- 
lino. 

S.  Azul  de  Prussia, 


P.  Azul  de  Alemanha ,  ou  de 
Prussia. 

DA.  Berlinerblaat, 

SW.  Berliner  blatt, 

R.  Las  or  Berlinskaja. 

L.  Coeruleum  Berolinense. 


Iron  is  the  basis  of  the  fine  blue  pigment,  called  from  the 
place  where  it  was  first  discovered,  Berlin,  or  Prussian  blue. 
This  colour  was  accidentally  discovered  about  tjhe  beginning 
of  the  last  century,  by  a  chemist  of  Berlin  \  who  having  suc¬ 
cessively  thrown  upon  the  ground  several  liquors  from  his 
laboratory,  was  much  surprized  to  see  it  suddenly  stained 
with  a  beautiful  blue  colour.  Recollecting  what  liquors  he 
had  thrown  out,  and  observing  the  same  effeCts  from  a  si¬ 
milar  mixture,  he  prepared  the  blue  for  the  use  of  painters  \ 
who  found  that  it  might  be  substituted  for  ultramarine,  and 
accordingly  have  used  it  ever  since. 

The  process  of  manufacturing  this  pigment  is  by  calcining 
a  quantity  of  vegetable  alkali  with  twice  its  weight  of  dried 
bullocks  blood,  until  the  blood  be  reduced  to  a  perfect  coal. 
This  coal  is  boiled  in  water,  the  lixivium  decanted,  and  poured 
into  a  solution,  of  one  part  of  martial  vitriol  to  six  of  alum, 
the  lixivium  and  the  solution  both  hot.  The  mixture  will 
then  acquire  a  very  pale  blue  colour,  and  deposite  as  pale 
a  precipitate.  On  adding  more  and  more  of  a  fresh  solution 
of  vitriol  the  colour  becomes  deeper  and  deeper.  In  order 
to  separate  this  precipitate,  it  is  now  filtrated,  the  next  day 
washed  till  the  water  comes  from  it  insipid,  and  the  blue 
colour  then  gently  dried. 

Prussian  Blue  is  nothing  more  than  the  iron  of  the  vitriol, 
revived  by  the  inflammable  matter  of  the  alkaline  lixivium, 
and  perhaps  a  little  brightened  by  the  earth  of  alum. 


27S 


PUMICE  STONE. 


F.  Fierre-ponce. 

G.  Bimstein. 

D.  Puimsteen. 

I.  Fietra  pomice. 

S.  Piedra  pomez. 

P.  Pedra  pomes. 

The  Pumice  Stone,  though  universally  admitted  to  be  the 
product  of  volcanic  fire,  is  one  of  those  bodies  which  have 
divided  the  opinion  of  naturalists.  The  Abbe  Lazaro  Spa- 
lanzani,  who  most  minutely  examined  this  article,  says,  that 
the  Pumice  fields  where  the  common  Pumice  is  found,  con¬ 
sist  of  an  aggregation  of  numerous  beds  or  strata  of  Pumices, 
each  bed  not  forming  a  distinct  whole,  but  being  a  collection 
of  balls  of  Pumice,  without  adhesion;  from  which  he  deduces 
that  they  were  thrown  out  by  the  volcano,  in  a  state  of 
fusion;  and  took  a  globose  form  in  the  air.  They  are  of 
different  sizes,  from  that  of  a  nut  to  a  foot  and  more  in 
diameter.  Though  the  ground  colour  of  them  all  is  white, 
in  some  it  inclines  to  yellow,  and  in  others  to  a  grey.  They 
swim  in  water,  and  do  not  give'  fire  with  steel.  Their  frac¬ 
ture  is  dry,  and  rough  to  the  touch,  their  angles  and  thin¬ 
ner  parts  slightly  transparent.  Some  are  so  compact,  that 
the  smallest  pore  is  not  visible,  nor  do  they  exhibit  the  least 
trace  of  a  filamentous  texture;  others  on  the  contrary  are 
full  of  pores  and  vacuities,  and  their  texture  is  formed  by 
filaments  and  streaks,  in  general  parallel  to  each  other,  of 
a  shining  silver  whiteness. 

This  is  the  common  Pumice  Stone  known  amongst  us, 
and  the  only  kind  constituting  an  article  of  commerce  from 
the  Mediterranean  to  this  country. 

There  are  several  other  varieties,  particularly  one  of  a 
dark  dirty,  and  another  of  a  pale  red  colour;  both  to  be 
found,  not  loose,  but  in  solid  beds,  and  cut  by  the  labourers 
in  form  of  parallelopipeds.  Both  the  latter  sorts  are  used 
in  Italy  for  building  arched  vaults,  cornices,  &c.  but  do  not 
constitute  an  article  of  foreign  commerce. 

The  greatest  part  of  Pumices  seem  to  have  felt-spar  for 
their  constituent  principle,  some  also  horn-stone,  some  as¬ 
bestos  or  a  stone  analogous  to  the  asbestos. 

The  greatest  quantity  of  Pumice  to  be  met  with  any 
where  is  the  Campo  Bianco,  in  the  Island  of  Lipari,  a  raoun- 
M  m 


DA.  Pimpsteen ,  Bimsteen. 
SW.  Pimsten ,  Kla^ten. 
POL.  Zuzel  kamienna . 

R.  Penza. 

L.  Pumsx. 


274- 


tain  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  breadth.  The  rock  also, 
upon  which  the  castle  of  Lipari  is  built,  is  an  immense  heap 
of  lava,  glass,  and  Pumice  Stones;  which  latter,  in  fa&,  are 
nothing  else  but  an  imperfeft  glass,  or  a  volcanous  ejection, 
which  if  exposed  to  a  greater  degree  of  heat,  would  have 
been  changed  in  a  vitreous  mass.  Small  quantities  of  Pu¬ 
mice  are  found  also  in  the  Arso,  in  the  island  of  Ischia. 
But  a  place  in  Europe,  which  in  the  abundance  of  its  Pumices 
can  equal,  or  perhaps  surpass  Lipari,  is  the  island  of  San- 
torine  in  the  Archipelago,  almost  covered  with  Pumice  Stone. 
Many  eruptions  of  Pumices  are  in  the  Phlegrean  Field;  one 
of  which  overwhelmed  the  unfortunate  town  of  Pompeii. 

Pumice  Stone  is  used  in  several  mechanical  arts;  as,  for 
rubbing  and  smoothing  the  surface  of  metals,  wood,  paste¬ 
board,  and  stone;  for  which  it  is  well  qualified  by  reason 
of  its  harsh  and  brittle  texture. 


PUZZULANA,  or  terra  pozzolana, 

Is  a  kind  of  earth  used  for  building  under  water.  It  is  a 
volcanic  product,  composed  of  heterogeneous  substances, 
thrown  out  from  the  burning  mouths  of  volcanoes,  in  the 
form  of  ashes;  sometime?  in  such  large  quantities,  and  with 
so  great  violence,  that  whole  provinces  have  been  covered 
with  it  at  a  considerable  distance.  This  volcanic  earth  is 
of  a  grey,  brown,  or  blackish  colour;  of  a  loose  granular 
or  dusty,  and  rough  porous,  or  spongy  texture,  resembling 
a  clay,  hardened  by  fire,  and  then  reduced  to  a  gross  pow¬ 
der.  Its  most  distinguished  property  is,  that  it  hardens  very 
suddenly  when  mixed  with  one- third  of  its  weight  of  lime 
and  water;  and  forms  a  cement  which  is  more  durable  in 
water  than  any  other. 

The  best  Puzzolana  is  found  about  Puzzuoli  or  Puteoli, 
Baiae,  and  Cumae,  in  the  kingdom  orNaples;  from  the  first 
of  which  places  it  derives  its  name. 


QUASSIA. 


P.  Bois  de  Quassie. 
G  Quassienbolz.. 

D.  Kzuas  lebout . 

I.  Legrto  di  Quassia* 


P .  Pao  de  Quassia , 
DA.  Qjassebark . 


SW.  Quassirttrted. 
L.  Lignum  Quassia • 


S.  Leno  de  Quassia. 

There  are  three  species  of  Quassia;  the  amara,  simaruba, 
and  excelsa  or  polygama. 

The  Quassia  Amara  grows  to  the  height  of  several  feet, 
and  sends  off  many  strong  branches.  The  wood  is  of  a 
white  colour  and  light;  the  bark  is  thin  and  grey.  It  is  a 
native  of  South  America,  particularly  of  Surinam,  and  also 
of  some  of  the  West  Indian  islands.  The  root,  bark,  and 
wood  of  this  tree,  have  all  places  in  the  materia  medica. 
The  wood  is  most  generally  used,  and  is  said  to  be  a  tonic, 
stomachic,  antiseptic  and  febrifuge. 

The  Quassia  Simaruba  is  common  in  all  the  woodlands 
of  Jamaica.  It  grows  to  a  great  height,  and  considerable 
thickness.  The  trunks  of  the  old  trees  are  black  and  a  little 
furrowed.  Those  of  the  young  trees  are  smooth  and  grey, 
with  here  and  there  a  broad  yellow  spot.  The  inside  bark 
of  the  trunk  and  branches  is  white,  fibrous,  and  tough.  It 
tastes  slightly  bitter.  The  wood  is  useful  for  building,  and 
has  no  sensibly  bitter  taste.  The  roots  are  thick,  and  run 
slightly  under  the  owfocc  of  the  ground  to  a  considerable 
distance.  Their  bark  is  rough,  scaly,  and  warted.  The  in¬ 
side  when  fresh  is  a  full  yellow,  but  when  dry,  paler.  It 
has  but  little  smell.  The  taste  is  bitter,  but  not  very  dis¬ 
agreeable.  This  is  the  true  cortex,simarubae  of  the  shops. 

The  Quassia  excelsa  or  polygama  is  likewise  very  common 
in  the  woodlands  of  Jamaica.  It  is  a  beautiful,  tall,  and 
stately  tree;  some  of  them  being  one  hundred  feet  long,  and 
ten  feet  in  circumference.  The  trunk  is  straight,  smooth, 
and  tapering,  sending  off  its  branches  towards  the  top.  The 
outside  bark  is  pretty  smooth,  and  of  a  light  grey,  or  ash- 
colour.  The  bark  of  the  roots  is  of  a  yellow  cast,  somewhat 


like  the  cortex  simarubse.  The  inner  bark  is  tough,  and 
composed  of  fine  flaxy  fibres.  The  bark  of  this  Quassia, 
but  especially  the  wood,  is  intensely  bitter.  The  wood  is 
of  a  yellow  colour,  tough,  but  not  very  hard;  it  takes  a 
good  polish,  and  is  used  as  flooring.  In  taste  and  virtues 
it  is  nearly  equal  to  the  Quassia  Amara,  and  frequently  sold 
for  the  same. 

Besides  its  use  in  medicine,  Quassia  is  consumed  in  large 
quantities  by  the  brewers,  to  give  a  bitterish  taste  to  the 
beer. 

QUERCITRON  BARK. 

G.  Quercitron . 

This  is  the  bark  of  a  species  of  oak  growing  spontaneously 
on  the  continent  of  North  America,  particularly  in  Massa¬ 
chusetts  bay,  where  it  is  commonly  called  yellow  oak*,  and 
in  other  parts,  particularly  in  Pennsylvania,  the  black  oak; 
Linnaeus  terms  it  quercus  nigra.  It  is  very  rough,  of  a  dark 
brown  or  black  colour  on  the  outside,  and  of  a  yellowish 
brown  within.  If  boiled  in  water  its  decoction  becomes  yel¬ 
low  by  the  addition  of  alum;  or  a  kind  of  olive  brown  by 
the  addition  of  a  solution  of  iron  by  some  mineral  or  ve¬ 
getable  acid.  On  account  of  this  property  it  has  been  in¬ 
troduced,  first  by  Dr.  Edward  Bancroft,  for  dying  yellow. 
He  first  imported  a  cargo  of  it  from  Philadelphia  to  London 
in  1775,  at  which  time  no  other  person  had  ever  imported 
this  bark  in  Great  Britain. 

Its  tingent  particles  very  much  resemble  in  their  properties 
and  effects  those  of  the  weld  plant;  though  all  the  colours 
given  by  the  latter  may  be  given  more  advantageously  by 
the  Quercitron  Bark.  The  latter  name  given  to  this  bark 
by  Dr.  Bancroft  is  of  the  Latin  words  Quercus  citrina. 

This  bark  may  be  advantageously  peeled  from  the  tree  in 
the  spring  months;  and  as  its  rough,  blackish  outside  part, 
making  nearly  half  of  the  whole,  contains  little  or  no  colour¬ 
ing  matter,  it  is  cut  off  from  the  inner  part;  which  being 
thoroughly  dried,  and  coarsely  ground,  is  then  closely  packed 
and  pressed  in  proper  casks,  and  so  shipped. 


277 


QUICKSILVER,  mercury. 


F.  Vif  argent . 

G.  Quecksiiber . 
D.  Kvjikzilver. 
I.  Argento  vivo. 
S.  Azogue. 

P.  Azougue . 


DA.  Queksolv. 

SVV.  Quicksilfver. 
POL  Zy<u;<?  srebro. 
Pv.  £/«/. 

L .  drargy  ri iim  % 


Quicksilver  is  a  semimetal,  so  fusible,  that  it  cannot  be  re¬ 
duced  to  a  solid  state  but  by  the  most  intense  degree  of  cold. 
Its  dilatation  by  heat  is  extremely  regular,  for  which  reason 
thermometers  are  frequently  filled  with  it. 

It  is  of  a  bright  silver  colbur,  resembling  lead  or  tin  when 
melted,  entirely  void  of  taste  and  smell.  It  is  the  most  pon¬ 
derous  of  all  known  bodies,  gold  and  platina  excepted;  its 
specific  gravity  being  to  that  of  water  nearly  as  fourteen  to 
one.  It  is  found  to  be  specifically  heavier  in  winter  than  in 
summer,  by  twenty-five  grains  in  eleven  ounces.  Neither  air 
nor  water,  nor  the  united  action  of  these  two,  seem  to  make 
any  impression  upon  Mercury,  nor  is  it  more  susceptible  of 
rust  than  the  most  perfect  metals.  Its  surface  nevertheless 
is  more  quickly  tarnished  by  dust  seizing  upon  it.  From  this 
however  it  can  easily  be  cleansed  by  passing  it  though  a  new 
clean  cloth. 

It  is  found  either  native,  or  mineralized  by  aerial  acid,  by 
the  vitriolic  and  marine  acids,  by  sulphur,  copper,  iron,  &c. 

The  principal  Quicksilver  mines  are,  at  Iclria  in  Austria, 
Almaden  in  Spain,  and  Quancavelica  in  Brasil.  But  there 
is  Quicksilver  found  in  many  other  parts:  as  in  Japan,  in  Si¬ 
cily,  Deuxponts,  Lower  Austria,  Kremnitz  in  Hungary,  Ha- 
rowitz  in  Bohemia,  Villa  Rica  in  Brasils,  &c. 

The  mines  of  Idria  have  produced  at  the  rate  of  231,778 
lb.  of  Quicksilver  per  annum;  and  those  of  Almaden  pro¬ 
duce  between  5  and  600,0001b.  yearly;  but  the  annual  pro¬ 
duce  of  those  at  Quancavelica  amounts  to  one  million  of 
pounds. 

Quicksilver  is  employed  in  Chili  and  Peru  to  extract  gold 
and  silver,  when  native,  from  the  earthy  matters  with  which 
they  are  mixed.  The  principle  on  which  this  method  is 
founded,  is  the  strong  mutual  attraflion  betwixt  Mercury  and 
the  precious  metals.  Mercury  uniting  with  almost  all  metals 
and  semimetals,  these  compounds  are  called  amalgams.  The 
amalgam  with  gold  serves  to  gild  copper  or  silver,  so  that 
they  appear  as  if  made  of  solid  gold.  The  only  use  to  which 
the  amalgam  of  Quicksilver  with  lead  has  hitherto  been  ap- 


278 


plied,  is  the  luting  glass  vessels.  The  amalgam  of  tin  is 
commonly  employed  in  making  looking-glasses. 

With  sulphur,  by  trituration  or  simple  fusion,  Mercury 
forms  a  black  powder  or  mass,  called  Ethiops  mineral;  which 
by  careful  sublimation,  becomes  the  beautiful  red  pigment 
called  vermillion. 

Various  preparations  are  made  in  pharmacy  of  Quicksilver 
for  external  and  internal  use;  as  sublimate  corrosive,  Mercu- 
rius  precipitatus  per  se,  Mercurius  dulcis,  calomel,  & c. 

Mercury  should  be  chosen  white,  fluid,  clean,  quick,  and 
of  a  beautiful  water  colour;  if  brown  and  leady,  sticking  to 
the  hands,  and  running  in  minute  globules,  it  is  a  sign  that 
it  is  mixed  with  lead. 


QUILLS. 


F.  Plumes  a  ecrice. 

G  Posen. 

'D.  Pennen. 

I.  Penne  da  scrinjere . 

S.  Plumas  o  canones  para  es- 
cribir. 


P.  Penn  as  ou  lanos  para  escre- 
* ver . 

DA.  Penne. 

SW.  Pennor. 

POL.  Piora,  Pipy ,  Pipki . 

R.  Peru,  St^oli. 


Quills  are  the  large  feathers  taken  out  of  the  end  of  the 
wings  of  geese,  ostriches,  crows,  &c.  They  are  denomina¬ 
ted  from  the  order  in  which  they  are  fixed  in  the  wing;  the 
second  and  third  quills  being  the  best  for  writing,  as  they 
have  the  largest  and  roundest  barrels.  Crow  Quills  are  chief¬ 
ly  used  for  drawing.  In  order  to  harden  a  Quill  that  is  soft 
thrust  the  barrel  into  hot  ashes,  stirring  it  till  it  is  soft,  and 
then  taking  it  out,  press  it  almost  flat  upon  your  knee  with 
the  back  of  a  pen  knife,  and  afterwards  reduce  it  to  a  round¬ 
ness  with  your  fingers.  Another  method  to  harden  Quills, 
is  by  setting  water  and  alum  over  the  fire,  and  while  it  is 
boiiing,  put  in  a  handful  of  Quills,  the  barrels  only,  for  a 
minute,  and  then  lay  them  by. 

Large  quantities  of  Quills  are  yearly  imported  in  Britain 
from  Germany  and  Holland. 

The  goodness  of  Quills  is  judged  by  the  size  of  the  barrels, 
but  particularly  by  the  weight;  hence  the  denomination  of 
Quills  of  fourteen,  fifteen,  &c.  loths;  viz.  the  thousand  con¬ 
sisting  of  twelve  hundred  Quills,  weighing  fourteen,  fifteen, 
&c.  loths.  The  loth  is  a  German  weight,  weighing  some¬ 
thing  more  than  an  ounce.  Particular  attention  should  be  paid 
on  purchasing  Quills,  that  they  may  not  be  left  handed,  that 
is,  not  out  of  the  left  wing. 


279 


RAISINS. 


F.  Raisins  secs  ou  passes . 

G.  Rosinen. 

D.  Rozy  nen. 

I.  U<ve  passe . 

S.  Pas  as. 

P.  Passasy  Pass  a  de  uajas. 


DA.  Rosiner. 
SW.  Russia. 
POL.  Rozynki . 
R.  Is  sum. 

L.  U<v<£  pass te. 


Raisins  are  grapes  prepared,  by  suffering  them  to  remain 
on  the  vine  till  they  are  perfectly  ripe,  and  then  drying  them 
in  the  sun,  or  by  the  heat  of  an  oven.  The  difference  between 
Raisins  dried  in  the  sun  and  those  dried  in  ovens,  is  very  ob¬ 
vious:  the  former  are  sweet  and  pleasant,  but  the  latter  have 
a  latent  acidity  with  the  sweetness,  that  renders  them  much 
less  agreeable. 

The  common  way  of  drying  grapes  for  Raisins  is  to  tie  two 
or  three  bunches  of  them  together  while  on  the  vine,  and 
dip  them  into  a  hot  lixivium  of  woodashes,  with  a  little  of 
the  oil  of  olives  in  it.  This  disposes  them  to  shrink  and 
wrinkle;  and  after  this  they  are  left  on  the  vine  three  or 
four  days,  separated  on  sticks,  in  an  horizontal  situation, 
and  then  dried  in  the  sun  at  leisure  after  being  cut  from  the 
tree.  Most  raisins,  as  the  sun  and  jar  Raisins  &c.  are  all 
dried  in  the  sun. 


RAPE  OIL. 

F.  Huile  de  na<vette . 

G.  Rue  bo  el . 

D.  Raapoli. 

I.  Olio  di  ra<vizzone , 

S.  Aceite  de  nabina. 

Rape  Oil  is  expressed  from  the  rapeseed :  its  use  being  for 
the  manufacture  of  wool,  for  burning  in  lamps,  and  to  serve 
instead  of  train  oil  when  there  is  a  scarcity  of  it. 


P.  Oleo  de  nabina. 
DA.  Roeolje. 

SW.  Rofolja. 

R.  Rapnoe  masslo. 


280 


Its  good  qualities  are,  a  gold  colour,  an  agreeable  smell, 
and  a  sweet  taste.  It  is  sometimes  mixed  with,  linseed 
oil,  which  is  discoverable  by  its  bitterness,  and  a  less  agree¬ 
able  smell. 


RAPESEED,  coleseed. 


F.  Graine  ds  Na-vette. 
G  Rubsaat,  Kuo  sen • 
D  Raapzaad. 

1.  Ravizzone. 

S.  Nabina. 


DA.  Rcefro. 

SW.  Rcjfr'o. 

POL  Rzepnica . 

R.  Rdpnoe  Sd  /ja. 

L.  Brassica  Cbinensis . 


P.  Nahiga,  Semente ,de  Nahos. 

Rapeseed  is  the  seed  of  the  napus  sativa,  or  long  rooted, 
narrow  leaved  rapa,  called  in  English  navew,  and  reckoned 
by  Linnaeus  among  the  brassicas  or  cabbage  kind. 

This  plant  is  cultivated  in  many  parts  of  England  to  great 
advantage,  particularly  in  Lincolnshire  and  Cambridgeshire, 
on  account  of  the  rape  oil  expressed  from  its  seeds.  The 
cultivation  of  it  was  first  introduced  by  those  Germans  and 
Dutchmen  who  drained  the  fens  of  Lincolnshire;  and  hence 
the  notion  has  erroneously  prevailed,  that  it  will  only  thrive 
in  a  marshy  soil.  It  is  to  be  sown  about  midsummer.  In  the 
months  of  January,  February,  and  March,  it  affords  very 
good  food  for  cattle,  and  will  sprout  again  when  cut;  after 
which  it  is  excellent  nourishment  for  sheep,  and  after  all,  if 
not  too  closely  fed,  will  bear  seed  against  July. 

Large  quantities  of  Rapeseed  are  imported  annually,  from 
Flanders,  Holland,  and  Germany;  also  from  Champagne, 
and  Normandy,  for  the  purport  of  extracting  rape  oil. 


RATAFIA, 


Is  a  fine  spirituous  liquor,  prepared  from  the  kernels,  &c. 
of  several  kinds  of  fruit,  particularly  cherries  and  apricots, 
with  an  addition  of  spice  and  brandy. 

Ratifia  of  cherries  is  prepared  by  burning  the  cherries,  and 
putting  them  into  a  vessel,  wherein  brandy  has  been  long 
kept:  then  adding  to  them  the  kernels  of  cherries,  with 
strawberries,  sugar,  cinnamon,  white  pepper,  nutmegs,  cloves, 
and  to  twenty  pounds  of  cherries,  ten  quarts  of  brandy.  The 
vessel  is  left  open  ten  or  twelve  days,  and  then  stopped  close 
for  two  months  before  it  be  tapped. 

Ratafia  is  chiefly  prepared  by  the  French. 


281 


RED  LEAD. 


F.  Minium ,  Plomb  rouge, 

G.  Men  nig. 

D.  Menie. 

I.  Minio. 

S.  Minium ,  Azarcon. 


DA.  Minie. 
SW.  M'6»ja. 
POL.  Minia. 
R.  Surik. 


L.  Minium. 


P.  Minio ,  Azarcao. 

Red  Lead  is  a  calx  of  lead,  of  a  vivid  red  colour  which 
colour  it  acquires  by  a  slow  calcination  and  reverberation. 

The  process  by  which  Red  Lead  is  prepared  in  large 
quantities  in  this  country,  is  as  follows.  They  first  burn 
lead  in  a  furnace  into  a  kind  of  litharge,  by  continually  stir¬ 
ring  it  while  melted  with  an  iron  rake;  this  they  afterwards 
grind  to  a  line  powder,  when  it  is  washed,  and  again  put  in 
a  furnace,  where  it  is  burnt  with  a  reverberatory  fire  for  two 
or  three  days.  Towards  the  end  of  the  time  they  watch  its 
being  of  the  right  colour.  When  this  is  doing  the  fire  must 
not  be  carried  beyond  a  certain  degree,  lest  the  matter  clod 
and  run  together. 

The  goodness  of  Red  Lead,  or  Minium,  may  be  distin¬ 
guished  by  the  brightness  of  its  colour;  and  the  adultera¬ 
tion  to  which  it  is  liable  may  be  detected,  by  putting  an 
ounce  of  it  into  a  crucible  with  an  equal  quantity  of  char¬ 
coal  dust  well  mixed  together,  and  placing  the  crucible  in  a 
common  fire,  sufficient  to  melt  lead,  which  is  to  be  covered 
with  another  small  crucible  inverted  into  it.  When  it  has 
continued  for  some  time  on  the  fire,  take  it  out  and  strike  it 
against  the  ground.  The  Red  Lead  will  thus  be  reduced  to 
its  metallic  state;  and  its  diminished  weight  when  cold,  and 
freed  from  the  charcoal  dust,  will  indicate  the  proportion  of 
adulterated  matter. 

Minium  is  used  in  painting,  varnishing,  as  a  flux  in  form¬ 
ing  the  enamel  for  grounds,  and  in  glazing,  &c.  In  medi¬ 
cine  for  external  applications. 


RED  SAUNDERS;  see  Saunders. 


N  n 


1 


282 


RHUBARB. 


F.  Rhubarbe. 
G  Rbabarber, 
D.  Rbabarber 


SW.  Rabarber. 

POL.  Reubarbarum,  Rum  tu- 


reckie. 

R.  Ren. ven. 

L.  Rhabarbarum,  Rheum  pal- 


I.  Rabarbaro,  Resbarbaro . 


S.  Ruibarbo. 
P.  Ruibarbo . 


mat  urn. 


DA.  Rabarber. 

Rhubarb  is  the  root  of  the  rheum  palmatum.  This  root  is 
of  an  oblong  figure,  large  at  the  head,  and  tapering  pretty 
suddenly  as  it  extends  in  length.  It  is  sometimes  single,  but 
more  usually  divided  into  two  or  three  parts  at  the  lower  end. 
We  frequently  meet  with  it  in  pieces  of  four,  five  or  six 
inches  long,  and  three  or  four  in  diameter  at  the  top.  It  is 
of  a  tolerably  smooth  and  even  surface,  and  of  a  faint  yellow 
colour,  with  an  admixture  of  btown.  It  is  moderately  hea¬ 
vy  and  not  hard*,  of  a  somewhat  lax  and  spongy  texture. 
It  has  an  agreeable  and  aromatic  smell,  and  a  bitterish,  as¬ 
tringent,  and  subacid  taste. 

Rhubarb  is  to  be  chosen  fresh,  and  such  as  does  not  dust 
the  fingers  in  handling;  such  as  infused  a  few  minutes  in  wa¬ 
ter,  gives  it  a  fine  yellow  colour,  and  when  bruised  in  a  mor¬ 
tar,  has  a  reddish  colour  with  the  yellow. 

Rhubarb  is  not  so  often  adulterated,  as  damaged;  care  is 
to  be  taken  that  it  is  not  wet,  nor  rotten ;  it  is  much  subjett 
to  be  worm  eaten  and  full  of  holes  on  the  surface.  There 
is  a  way  of  filling  up  these  holes  with  the  powder  of  some 
of  the  most  decayed  pieces,  which  however  may  be  easily 
discovered. 

This  drug  is  brought  to  us  from  Russia,  and  from  the 
East  Indies.  It  is  produced  in  great  plenty  on  the  confines  of 
China  and  Tartary,  and  in  many  parts  of  Tartary  itself:  the 
mountains  of  Thibet  abound  with  it,  and  a  very  conside¬ 
rable  part  of  what  is  sent  to  Europe  grows  there. 

Rhubarb  possesses  the  double  virtue  of  a  cathartic  and 
an  astringent,  and  is  acknowledged  to  be  an  excellent  me¬ 
dicine. 


283 


F.  Ris. 

G.  Reiss. 

D.  Ryst. 

I.  Mi  so. 

S.  Arroz. 

P.  Arroz,  Arros. 


RICE. 

DA.  Riis. 

SVV.  Ris. 

POL.  Ryz. 

R.  Pscheno  sarazinsloe . 
L ,  Oryza ,  R  izum . 


Rice  is  a  plant  very  much  resembling  wheat  in  shape  and 
colour,  and  in  the  figure  and  disposition  of  its  leaves.  The 
panicle  which  terminates  the  stem  is  composed  of  small  flow¬ 
ers,  distindl  from  each  other,  which  have  four  unequal 
scales,  six  stamina,  and  one  pistil,  surrounded  with  two 
styles.  This  pistil  becomes  a  white  seed,  extremely  farina¬ 
ceous,  covered  with  two  interior  scales. 

This  plant  thrives  only  in  low,  damp,  and  marshy  lands, 
when  they  are  even  a  little  overflowed.  The  period  of  its 
discovery  is  traced  to  the  remotest  antiquity. 

Egypt,  unfortunately  for  itself,  first  attended  to  it.  The 
pernicious  effe&s  of  this  culture  rendered  the  country  the 
most  unhealthy  in  the  known  world.  China  and  the  East  In¬ 
dies  must  experience  the  same  calamity,  if  art  does  not  op¬ 
pose  preservatives  to  nature,  whose  benefits  are  sometimes 
accompanied  with  evils  ;  or  if  the  heat  of  the  torrid  zone  does 
not  quickly  dispel  the  damp  and  malignant  vapours,  which 
are  exhaled  from  the  Rice  grounds.  It  is  a  known  fa<5t, 
that  in  the  Rice  grounds  of  the  Milanese  the  cultivators  are 
all  livid  and  dropsical. 

The  culture  of  Rice  is  still  very  considerable  about  Da- 
mietta,  Mansura,  and  other  parts  of  Egypt.  Were  the  trade 
in  this  article  under  no  restraint  a  considerable  quantity 
might  be  exported;  but  the  port  of  Damietta  alone  is  open 
for  the  exportation  of  Rice.  The  Americans  are  even  said 
to  have  brought  Rice  to  Egypt  from  Carolina,  for  some  time, 
which  would  be  a  proof  of  the  astonishing  decline  of  agri¬ 
culture  in  that  country. 

Opinions  differ  about  the  manner  in  which  Rice  has 
been  naturalized  in  Carolina.  But  whether  the  province 
may  have  acquired  it  by  a  shipwreck,  whether  it  may  have 
been  carried  there  with  slaves,  or  whether  it  be  sent  from 
England,  it  is  certain  that  the  soil  seemed  favourable  for  it. 
It  multiplied  however  but  slowly,  because  the  colonists,  who 
were  obliged  to  send  their  harvests  into  the  ports  of  the  mo- 


284 


ther  country,  by  which  they  were  sent  into  Spain  and  Por¬ 
tugal,  acquired  so  small  a  profit  from  their  productions, 
that  it  was  scarcely  sufficient  to  defray  the  expenses  of  culti¬ 
vation.  In  1730  a  more  enlightened  administration  permit¬ 
ted  the  direCt  exportation  of  this  grain  beyond  Finisterre. 
Some  years  afterwards  it  was  allowed  to  be  carried  to  the 
West-Indies,  and  then  the  provinces  being  sure  of  selling 
the  good  Rice  advantageously  in  Europe,  and  the  inferior 
or  spoiled  Rice  in  America,  attended  seriously  to  the  culti¬ 
vation  of  it.  This  produCHon  grows,  by  the  care  of  negroes, 
in  the  morasses  which  are  near  the  coasts. 

There  is  a  wild  kind  of  Rice  growing  in  great  plenty 
throughout  the  interior  parts  of  North  America,  which  sup¬ 
plies  the  inhabitants  with  food  without  any  further  trouble 
than  that  of  gathering  it.  It  grows  in  the  water  where  it  is 
about  two  feet  deep,  and  where  it  finds  a  rich  muddy  soil. 
The  stalks  of  it,  and  the  branches  or  ears  that  bear  the  seed, 
resemble  oats,  both  in  their  appearance,  and  manner  of 
growing.  The  stalks  are  full  of  joints,  and  rise  more  than 
eight  feet  from  the  water. 

ROCK  OIL;  see  Petrol. 

ROMAN  VITRIOL;  see  Blue  Vitriol. 

/  .  - 

ROSIN;  see  Oil  of  Turpentine ,  and  Turpentine. 


RUBY. 

F.  Rubis . 

G.  Rubin. 

D.  Robyn. 

I.  Rubino . 

S.  Rubi. 

P.  Rubim. 

The  Ruby  is  a  beautiful  gem  of  red  colour,  with  an  ad¬ 
mixture  of  purple. 

This  in  its  most  perfeCt  and  best  coloured  state  is  a  gem  of 
prodigious  beauty,  and  extreme  value.  In  hardness  it  is 
equal  to  the  sapphire  and  inferior  only  to  the  diamond.  It  is 
usually  found  very  small,  equal  to  the  head  of  the  largest 
sort  of  pins;  but  sometimes  of  four,  eight,  and  ten  carats; 
and  sometimes,  though  very  seldom,  of  twenty,  thirty,  up 
to  forty  carats.  It  is  never  found  of  an  angular  or  crystalli- 


DA.  Rubin. 

SVV.  Rubin. 

POL.  Rubin. 

R.  Jachont  iscber^wtschatoi . 
L.  Rubinus. 


form,  but  always  of  a  pebble-like  shape.  It  commonly  is 
naturally  so  bright,  and  pure  on  the  surface,  that  when  its 
figure  will  admit,  it  is  set  in  its  rough  state. 

Our  jewellers  distinguish  this  gem,  according  to  its  dif¬ 
ferent  degrees  of  colours,'  under  three  different  names;  viz. 
the  Ruby,  which  name  simply  is  given  to  the  stone  when 
in  its  deepest  coloured  and  most  perfedt  state;  the  spinel 
Ruby,  comprehending  those  Rubies  that  are  of  a  somewhat 
less  bright  colour;  and  the  balass  Ruby,  which  expresses  a 
pale,  yet  very  bright  Ruby,  with  less  admixture  of  the  pur¬ 
ple  tinge  than  in  the  deeper  colour  ones. 

The  true  Ruby  only  comes  from  the  East  Indies,  and  the 
principal  mines  are  in  the  kingdom  of  Pegu  and  the  island 
of  Ceylon.  We  have  in  Europe  crystals  tinged  of  the  colour 
of  the  Ruby,  but  they  have  nothing  of  its  lustre  or  hardness. 


RUM. 


F.  Rum,  Gueldive. 

G.  Rum. 

D.  Rum,  Keelduivel . 
I.  Rum ,  7 ajfia. 

S.  Ron,  Rom ,  Tafia. 


P.  Rom. 

DA.  R  m,  Geldyvel. 
bW.  Rom,  Rutn. 

R.  Rom . 


Rum  differs  from  simple  sugar  spirit  in  containing  more 
of  the  natural  flavour,  or  essential  oil  of  th.^  sugar  cane  ; 
a  great  deal  of  raw  juice,  and  parts  of  the  cane  itself  being 
fermented  in  the  liquor  of  which  it  is  prepared.  The  unc¬ 
tuous  or  oily  flavour  of  Rum  is  the  effedt  of  the  natural 
flavour  of  the  sugar  cane. 

The  method  of  making  Rum  is  this:  When  a  sufficient 
stock  of  the  materials  is  got  together,  they  add  water  to 
them,  and  ferment  them  in  the  common  manner.  When 
the  wash  is  fully  fermented,  or  to  a  due  degree  of  acidity, 
the  distillation  is  carried  on  in  the  common  way,  and  the 
spirit  is  made  up  proof ;  though  sometimes  it  is  reduced  to 
a  much  greater  strength,  nearly  approaching  that  of  alcohol, 
and  is  then  called  double  distilled  Rum!  It  would  be  easy 
to  redtify  the  spirit,  and  bring  it  to  a  much  greater  purity 
than  we  usually  find  it  to  be;  for  it  brings  over  in  the  distil-, 
lation  a  very  large  quantity  of  the  oil,  and  this  is  often  so 
disagreeable,  that  the  Rum  must  be  suffered  to  lie  by  a  long 
time  to  mellow,  before  it  can  be  used;  whereas  if  w^ell  rec¬ 
tified,  it  would  grow  mellow  much  sooner,  and  would  have 
a  much  less  potent  flavour.  If  the  business  of  redfifying  was 


286 


more  nicely  managed,  it  seems  very  practicable,  to  throw 
out  so  much  of  the  oil  as  to  have  it  in  the  fine  light  state  of 
a  clear  spirit.  In  this  state  it  would  very  near  resemble  arrac, 
as  is  proved,  by  mixing  a  very  small  quantity  of  it  with  a 
tasteless  spirit. 

Rum  is  usually  very  much  adulterated  in  England.  Some 
are  so  barefaced  as  to  do  it  with  malt  spirit ;  but  if  done 
with  melasses  spirit,  the  tastes  of  both  are  so  nearly  allied, 
that  it  is  not  easily  discovered. 


RYE. 


F.  SeigJe, 

G .  Roggen. 

D.  Rog ,  Roggn. 

I.  Segale,  Segala. 
S.  Centeno. 


DA.  Rug . 

SW.  Rag. 

POL.  Rez,  Zlto. 

K.  Rosch ,  Sel,  Jar. 


L.  Secale. 


P.  Seteio ,  Centeio. 

The  secale  cereale  or  common  Rye,  is  a  native  of  the  island 
of  Candia,  and  was  introduced  into  the  North  of  Europe, 
and  England  many  years  ago.  There  are  two  varieties, 
the  winter  and  spring  Rye.  The  winter  Rye,  which  is 
larger  than  the  spring  Rye,  is  sown  in  autumn,  at  the  same 
time  with  wheat.  The  spring  Rye  which  is  sown  along 
with  the  oats,  usually  ripens  as  soon  as  the  winter  Rye ;  but 
the  grain  produced  being  lighter,  it  is  seldom  sown,  except 
where  the  autumnal  crop  has  failed. 

Rye  is  commonly  used  for  bread,  either  alone,  or  mixed 
with  wheat.  The  consumption  of  this  article  is  particularly 
great  in  Yorkshire  and  Scotland.  Rye  is  frequently  imported 
into  Great  Britain  from  Russia. 

Rye  is  subject  to  a  disease,  which  the  French  call  ergot , 
and  the  English  horned  Rye.  This  commonly  arises  from  a 
hot  summer  succeeding  a  rainy  spring.  Horned  Rye  is  such 
as  suffers  an  irregular  vegetation  in  the  middle  substance  be¬ 
tween  the  grain  and  the  leaf,  producing  an  excrescence  of 
ft  brownish  colour,  about  an  inch  and  a  half  long,  and  two 
tenths  of  an  inch  broad.  Bread  made  of  this  kind  of  Rye 
has  a  nauseous  acrid  taste,  and  produces  spasmodic  and  gan¬ 
grenous  disorders.  Horned  Rye  has  been  known  to  destroy 
sheep,  dogs,  poultry,  &c. 


\ 


287 


U,  SUGAR  OF  LEAD. 

S .  Azucar  de  Saturno . 
P.  Assucar  de  Saturno. 
L.  i Saccharum  saturni . 


ead,  boil  ceruse  with  dis- 
>ecomes  sufficiently  sweet ; 
iper,  and  after  due  evapo- 

ine  for  internal  use,  but  is 
;  frequently  imported  from 


rER. 

P,  A^afroa,  Azafrca ,  Carta- 
mo,  Fusaro. 

DA.  Safflor,  Uegte  Saffran. 
SW.  Sa.jffJor,  O'dgt  Sajfrart. 
POL.  Szafran  polny,  Krokos . 
R.  Foh'woi,  prostci  schafran . 
L.  Carthamus  tindorius,  Saf- 
franum. 


e  flower  of  the  carthamus 
ing  in  Egypt,  and  some  of 
also  in  the  Levant,  from 
lually  imported  into  Great 
ig  a  yellow  dye.  The  good 
bright  colour  of  a  saffron 
nuch  rain  during  the  time 
3  flowers  are  gathered  with 
change  into  a  dark  dirty 

Safflower  in  Egypt  is  as  fol- 
;h,  and  pressed  between  two 


286 


more  nicely  managed,  it  seems  very  practicable,  to  throw 
out  so  much  of  the  oil  as  to  have  it  in  the  fine  light  state  of 
a  clear  spirit.  In  this  state  it  would  very  near  resemble  arrac, 
as  is  proved,  by  mixing  a  very  small  quantity  of  it  with  a 
tasteless  spirit. 

Rum  is  usually  very  much  adulterated  in  England.  Some 
are  so  barefaced  as  to  do  it  with  hut  if  done 


with  melasses  spiri 
that  it  is  not  easily 


irly  allied, 


F.  SeigJe. 

G.  Roggen. 

D.  Rog ,  Roggn . 

I.  Segale,  Sega/a. 
S.  Centeno. 

P.  Seteio ,  Centeio. 


The  secaie  cereale  < 
of  Candia,  and  was  i 
and  England  many 
the  winter  and  sprir 
larger  than  the  spring 
time  with  wheat.  T 
with  the  oats,  usually 
the  grain  produced  bei 
where  the  autumnal  crt 
Rye  is  commonly  us* 
with  wheat.  The  cons 
great  in  Yorkshire  and  i: 
into  Great  Britain  from 
Rye  is  subject  to  a  d 
and  the  English  horned  u 
hot  summer  succeeding  a 
as  suffers  an  irregular  ve^ 
tween  the  grain  and  the 
a  brownish  colour,  about 
tenths  of  an  inch  bread, 
has  a  nauseous  acrid  taste, 
grenous  disorders.  Hornt 
sheep,  dogs,  poultry,  &c. 


287 


SACCHARUM  SATURNI,  sugar  of  lead. 


F.  Sucre  de  Saturne. 

G.  Bley  “sucker. 

D  Lcodsuiker. 

I ,  Zucchero  di  Saturno. 


S.  Azucar  de  Saturno. 
P.  Assucar  de  Saturno . 
L.  . Saccharum  saturni. 


To  make  this  preparation  of  lead,  boil  ceruse  with  dis¬ 
tilled  vinegar  until  the  vinegar  becomes  sufficiently  sweet ; 
then  filter  the  vinegar  through  paper,  and  after  due  evapo¬ 
ration  set  it  to  crystallize. 

This  is  a  very  dangerous  medicine  for  internal  use,  but  is 
of  great  service  externally.  It  is  frequently  imported  from 
Germany. 


SAFFLOWER. 


F.  Saffranon ,  Cart  a  me,  S  - 
fran  batard. 

G,  Saffior ,  Wilder  Saffran. 
D.  Saffoer,  Floers,  Basterd 

Saffran  • 

I.  Zaffrone,  Zafferano  saraci- 
jiesco . 

S.  Alazor,  Azafran  bast ar do, 
Cartamo. 


P,  A^afroa,  Azafrca,  Carta¬ 
mo,  Fusaro. 

DA.  S  off  or,  Vegte  Saffran , 
SW.  Saffor,  Odgt  Saffran. 
POL.  Szafran  polny ,  Krokos. 
R.  Pole'woi,  prostci  schafran . 
L.  Cartbamus  tindorius ,  SaJ- 
franum. 


Safflower  is  the  florets  of  the  flower  of  the  carthamus 
tin&orius,  a  plant  originally  growing  in  Egypt,  and  some  of 
the  warm  parts  of  Europe,  and  also  in  the  Levant,  from 
whence  great  quantities  are  annually  imported  into  Great 
Britain,  for  the  purpose  of  making  a  yellow  dye.  The  good 
quality  of  this  commodity  is  in  a  bright  colour  of  a  saffron 
hue.  If  there  happens  to  fall  much  rain  during  the  time 
the  plants  are  in  flower,  or  if  the  flowers  are  gathered  with 
any  moisture  upon  them,  they  change  into  a  dark  dirty 
yellow. 

The  manner  of  preparing  the  Safflower  in  Egypt  is  as  fol¬ 
lows:  the  flowers  are  gathered  fresh,  and  pressed  between  two 


288 


stones  to  extract  the  crude  juice,  which  is  thrown  away:  they 
then  are  washed  several  times  in  spring  water  which  is  brack¬ 
ish  in  Egypt,  and  by  this  the  remaining  acrid  juice  is  carried 
away.  When  well  pressed  with  the  hands,  they  are  put  on 
the  flat  roofs  of  houses,  and  laid  on  mats,  being  now  of  a 
yellow  colour.  In  the  day  time  they  are  covered  with  rushes 
or  straw,  lest  they  should  dry  too  fast,  but  at  night  they  are 
uncovered  and  exposed  to  the  air  and  dew.  They  are  turn¬ 
ed  every  now  and  then,  and  when  dry  are  changed  into  a 
deep  yellow,  and  so  packed  and  shipped  for  Europe. 

SAFFRON. 


F.  Sajran. 

G .  Saffron. 

D.  Saffraan. 

I.  Z  offer  ano,  Gruogo. 
S.  Azof  ran. 

P.  Atjafrao. 


DA.  Saffron . 
8W  Saffran. 
POL.  Szafran, 
R.  Schafran. 
L.  Crocus . 


Saffron  is  a  bulbous  plant,  of  which  there  are  two  species, 
one  blowing  in  spring,  and  the  other  in  autumn.  The  for¬ 
mer  is  merely  esteemed  on  account  of  the  beauty  of  its  flow¬ 
ers;  the  latter  is  in  blossom  earlier  than  the  green  leaves  ap¬ 
pear,  which  remain  during  winter,  and  the  flowers  contain 
those  small  threads  or  filaments  used  in  medicine,  and  as  a 
paint,  and  employed  also  for  seasoning  various  kinds  of 
food. 

It  appears  that  the  medicinal  use  of  this  plant  has  always 
continued  among  the  orientals.  The  Europeans  who  adopted 
the  medicine  of  the  Greeks  sent  to  the  Levant  for  Saffron, 
until  they  learned  the  art  of  rearing  it  themselves;  and  em¬ 
ployed  it  very  much,  until  they  were  made  acquainted  with 
the  use  of  more  beneficial  articles. 

What  in  the  ancient  use  of  Saffron  is  most  discordant 
with  our  taste  is  the  employing  it  as  a  perfume.  Not  only 
were  halls,  theatres,  and  courts,  through  which  one  wished 
to  diffuse  an  agreeable  smell,  strewed  with  this  plant,  but 
it  entered  into  the  composition  of  many  vinous  extracts, 
which  retained  the  same  scent;  and  these  costly  smelling 
waters  were  often  made  to  flow  in  small  streams,  which 
spread  abroad  their  much  admired  odour.  Luxurious  people 
even  moistened  or  filled  with  them  all  those  things,  with 
which  they  were  desirous  of  surprising  their  guests  in  an 
agreeable  manner,  or  with  which  they  ornamented  their 
apartments.  From  Saffron,  with  the  addition  of  wax  and 


289 


other  ingredients,  the  Greeks  as  well  as  the  Romans  prepared 
also  scented  salves,  which  they  used  in  the  same  manner  as 
our  ancestors  their  balsams.  In  modern  times  it  does  not 
appear  that  the  smell  of  Saffron  was  ever  much  admired. 

That  Saffron  was  as  much  employed  in  seasoning  dishes, 
as  for  a  perfume,  appears  from  the  oldest  works  of  cookery; 
and  its  use  in  this  respedl  has  been  long  continued,  and  in 
many  countries  is  still  more  prevalent  than  physicians  wish 
it  to  be. 

It  may  readily  be  supposed  that  the  great  use  made  of  this 
plant  in  cookery,  must  have  induced  people  to  attempt  to 
cultivate  it  in  Europe;  and  it  is  probable,  that  it  was  first 
introduced  into  Spain  by  the  Arabs.  From  Spain  it  was, 
according  to  every  appearance,  carried  afterwards  into  France. 
As  to  its  introduction  into  England  we  are  assured,  that  a 
pilgrim  brought  from  the  Levant  to  England,  under  the 
reign  of  Edward  III.  the  first  root  of  Saffron,  which  he  had 
found  means  to  conceal  in  his  staffs  made  hollow  for  that 
purpose. 

In  the  fifteenth  and  following  century,  the  cultivation  of 
Saffron  was  so  important  an  article  in  the  European  hus¬ 
bandry,  that  it  was  omitted  by  no  writer  on  that  subjeCL 
The  Saffron  consumed  at  present  in  this  country  comes  from 
France  and  Spain. 

One  million  eight  hundred  thousand  pounds  of  Saffron 
are  annually  prepared  in  Egypt.  The  greater  part  of  it  goes 
to  Marseilles  and  Italy,  the  rest  to  Syria  and  Arabia.  The 
best  Saffron  grows  in  the  vicinity  of  Cairo;  that  of  Upper 
Egypt  is  not  reckoned  so  good. 

SAGO. 


F.  Sagou. 

G.  Sago. 
D.  Sago. 
I.  Sago . 


S.  Sago. 

P  Sago.  * 
DA.  Sagogryn. 
SW.  Sagogryn. 


The  Sago-tree,  cycas  circinalis,  grows  spontaneously  in 
the  East  Indies,  and  particularly  in  the  Moluccas,  and  on 
the  coast  of  Malabar. 

This  is  a  valuable  tree  to  the  inhabitants  of  India,  as  it 
not  only  furnishes  a  considerable  part  of  their  constant  bread, 
but  also  supplied  them  with  a  large  article  of  trade.  It  runs 
up  with  a  straight  trunk  to  forty  feet  or  more.  The  body 
O  o 


290 


contains  a  farinaceous  substance,  which  they  extract  from  it, 
and  make  into  bread. 

The  tree,  which  seems  to  grow  merely  for  the  use  of  man, 
points  out  the  meal  by  a  fine  white  powder  which  covers  its 
leaves,  and  is  a  certain  indication  of  the  maturity  of  the 
Sago.  The  inhabitants  then  cut  it  down  to  the  root,  saw 
the  body  into  small  pieces,  and  after  beating  them  in  a  mor¬ 
tar,  pour  water  upon  the  mass;  this  is  left  for  some  hours 
to  settle.  When  fit,  it  is  strained  through  a  cloth,  and 
the  finer  particles  of  the  mealy  substance  running  through 
with  the  water,  the  gross  ones  are  left  behind  and  thrown 
away.  After  the  farinaceous  part  is  sufficiently  subsided, 
the  water  is  poured  off,  and  the  meal  being  properly  dried 
is  occasionally  made  into  cakes,  and  baked.  These  cakes 
are  said  to  eat  nearly  as  well  as  wheaten  bread,  and  are 
the  support  of  the  inhabitants  for  three  or  four  months  in 
the  year. 

The  same  meal,  more  firmly  pulverized,  and  reduced  in 
granules,  is  what  is  called  Sago,  which  is  sent  into  all  parts 
of  Europe,  and  sold  in  the  shops  as  a  great  strengthener 
and  restorative. 

There  is. a  sort  of  Sago  brought  from  the  West  Indies,  but 
far  inferior  in  quality  to  that  coming  from  the  East.  It  is 
supposed  to  be  made  from  the  pith  or  areca  oleraeea. 

SAL  AMMONIAC. 


F.  Sel  Ammoniac. 

G.  Salmi ak . 

D.  Sal  Ammoniak. 
1.  Sale  Ammomaco. 
S.  Sal  Ammoniaca. 
P.  Sal  Ammoniaco . 


DA.  Salmi ak. 

SW.  Salmi  ak. 

POL.  Salmiak,  Saline - 
niak . 

R.  Nuschaiur. 

L.  Sal  ammoniacum , 


Of  this  volatile  salt  there  are  two  sorts,  the  ancient  and 
modern.  The  ancient  was  a  native  sort  generated  in  those 
large  inns  or  caravanseras  where  the  crowd  of  pilgrims,  coming 
from  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon,  used  to  lodge.  There, 
from  the  remarkably  strong  urine  of  their  camels,  arose  a 
kind  of  salt  denominated  sometimes  Ammoniac,  from  the 
temple,  and  sometimes  Cyreniac,  from  the  Egyptian  province 
Cyrene,  in  which  the  temple  stood. 

Large  quantities  of  a  salt  nearly  of  the  same  nature,  have 
been  thrown  out  by  mount  ./Etna. 

The  modem  Sal  Ammoniac  is  entirely  the  produce  of  art. 


291 


Marine  acid  combined  with  volatile  alkali  produces  the 
modern  common  Sal  Ammoniac.  The  method  of  making 
this  salt  was  long  unknown,  and  it  was  all  imported  from 
Egypt.  Its  composing  parts  however,  being  once  known, 
there  was  nothing  left  in  order  to  prepare  it,  but  to  procure 
them  sufficiently  cheap,  so  as  to  afford  Sal  Ammoniac  made 
in  Britain  at  an  equally  low  price  with  that  imported  from 
Egypt.  The  volatile  alkali  is  to  be  procured  in  plenty  from 
animal  substances,  or  from  soot;  and  the  low  price  of  the 
vitriolic  acid  made  from  sulphur,  affords  an  easy  method 
of  decomposing  sea-salt,  and  obtaining  its  acid  at  a  cheap 
rate.  A  Sal  Ammoniac  work  has  been  established  a  consi¬ 
derable  time  since  at  Edinburgh  upon  this  principle. 

The  art  of  sublimating  Sal  Ammoniac  in  Egypt  is  as  fol¬ 
lows.  As  Egypt  is  without  wood  its  inhabitants  are  obliged 
to  burn  the  dung  of  their  domestic  animals.  The  dung  of 
asses  and  camels  is  chiefly  used;  they  mix  it  with  cut  straw, 
and  of  this  mixture  make  cakes,  which  are  dried  in  the  sun. 
A  soot,  very  rich  in  salts,  is  produced  by  the  burning  of 
these  cakes,  which  is  employed  in  the  manufa&ure  of  Sal 
Ammoniac.  The  sublimation  of  this  soot  is  performed  in 
large  bottles  of  thick  glass,  shaped  like  bombs,  and  put  into 
a  furnace  which  is  heated  with  dung.  For  three  days  and 
three  nights  an  equal  heat  is  kept  up,  and  that  intense 
enough  to  vitrify  the  potters  earth  with  which  the  bottles 
are  coated,  to  make  them  resist  the  violence  of  the  Are. 
The  furnace  is  then  suffered  to  cool,  the  bottles  are  broken, 
and  the  Sal  Ammoniac  taken  out  of  their  necks,  into  which 
it  has  been  raised  by  sublimation. 

Sal  Ammoniac  has  the  property  of  making  tin  unite  very 
readily  with  iron  and  copper,  and  is  therefore  much  used 
by  coppersmiths,  and  in  the  manufactory  of  tinned  iron. 
A  solution  of  Sal  Ammoniac  has  the  property  of  dissolving 
resins. 


SALT. 


F.  Set. 

DA.  Salt. 

G.  Salz. 

SW.  Salt. 

D.  Zout. 

POL.  Sol. 

I.  Sale. 

R.  Sol. 

S.  Sal. 

L.  Sal. 

P.  Sal. 

Salt  is  a  mineral  body,  readily  soluble  in  water,  not  inflam¬ 
mable,  and  tasting  sharp  or  pungent  upon  the  tongue. 


292 


Alum,  nitre,  the  different  kinds  of  alkali,  &c.  are  all 
Salts;  but  we  limit  ourselves  here  to  treat  of  alimentary  Salt, 
Or  muria. 

Alimentary  Salt  is  found  under  a  variety  of  forms  in  its 
different  states;  but  it  is  immediately  distinguished  by  ap¬ 
plying  it  to  the  tongue;  and  always  assumes  a  cubic,  pyra¬ 
midal,  or  parallelopiped  figure,  after  a  regular  crystalliza¬ 
tion.  It  is  sustained  in  vast  quantities,  in  a  liquid  form, 
among  sea-water,  and  that  of  salt-springs;  but  is  also  found 
solid  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth. 

The  sea-water  in  different  parts  of  the  world  is  very  dif¬ 
ferently  saturated  with  Salt,  some  parts  containing  twice  as 
much  as  others;  but  salt-springs  are  always  much  more  so 
than  any  sea-water;  some  containing  as  much,  nearly,  as 
they  could  be  made  to  dissolve,  and  yielding  a  brine,  a 
pound  of  which  affords  near  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  Salt. 
The  common  run  of  sea-water  does  not  hold  so  much  as  one- 
fourth  part  of  this  quantity,  some  not  one-eighth  of  it. 

Salt  produced  from  the  sea-water  or  salt-springs,  of  any 
part  of  the  world,  only  differs  in  strength;  and  the  strength 
of  Salt  principally  seems  to  depend  upon  the  method  of 
preparing  it.  The  quicker  the  liquor  is  evaporated  the 
weaker  is  the  Salt,  which  seems  to  proceed  from  part  of  the 
acid  being  raised  and  carried  away  with  the  water,  when 
exposed  to  a  violent  fire.  Salt  obtained  by  codtion  is  there¬ 
fore  always  much  weaker  than  Sea-salt,  obtained  only  by 
exposure  to  the  rays  of  the  sun. 

Of  Sea-Salt  there  are  two  kinds,  that  which  requires  the 
heat  of  the  sun  to  give  it  its  consistence,  called  from  its  brown 
colour  bay  Salt;  and  that  which  receives  its  consistence  from 
the  heat  of  fire,  called  white  Salt.  Low  marshy  grounds 
disposed  by  nature  for  the  reception  of  the  sea-water  when 
the  tide  swells,  and  provided  with  banks  and  sluices  to  retain 
the  same,  are  called  a  salt  marsh.  These  salt-marshes,  the 
bottoms  whereof  they  ram  with  a  deal  of  care,  are  di¬ 
vided  into  several  pits  or  basons,  and  into  these  basons, 
when  the  season  is  at  hand,  they  let  in  the  sea-water.  The 
Salt-season  is  from  the  middle  of  May  to  the  end  of  August; 
in  which  time,  the  days  being  long,  and  the  sun’s  rays 
strongest,  the  Salt  is  raised  and  crystallized  better  than  in 
any  other  season.  The  water  is  admitted  to  the  height  of 
about  six  inches,  after  first  having  let  it  rest  and  warm  two 
or  three  days  in  large  reservoirs  without  the  works,  that  it 
may  come  in  lukewarm.  The  water  admitted,  the  sluices 
are  shut,  and  the  rest  of  the  work  left  to  the  wind  and  the 


293 


sun.  The  surface  of  the  water  thickens  at  first  imperceptibly, 
and  becomes  at  length  covered  over  with  a  slight  crust; 
which  hardening  by  the  continuance  of  the  heat  is  wholly 
converted  into  Salt.  When  the  Salt  has  received  its  full 
crystallization  they  break  it  with  a  pole,  upon  which  it  sinks 
to  the  bottom;  whence  being  dragged  out  again,  they  leave 
it  some  time  in  little  heaps  ahout  the  edge  of  the  pit,  to 
complete  the  drying;  and  at  length  in  greater  heaps,  which 
they  cover  over  with  straw  or  rushes  to  secure  them  from 
rain.  Eight,  ten,  or  at  most  fifteen  days,  having  thus  com¬ 
pleted  the  process,  they  open  the  sluices  when  the  tide  is 
rising,  for  a  fresh  stock  of  wrater,  and  gather  the  Salt  till 
the  season  is  over.  Rainy  weather  is  very  pernicious  to  the 
work;  for  rain  water  mixing  in  any  quantity  with  the  sea¬ 
water  renders  it  useless.  The  Salt  is  brown,  green,  or  red¬ 
dish,  when  taken  out  of  the  pits,  on  account  of  the  mud 
slime,  always  mixed  with  it.  In  some  places  they  make  it 
into  white  Salt  by  boiling  it. 

The  chief  coasts  for  bay  Salt  are  those  of  Bretagne, 
Saintonge,  and  the  Pays  d’Aums,  in  France.  Bay-salt  is 
also  made  in  Portugal,  particularly  at  Setubal  or  St.  \Jbes. 
About  four  thousand  tons  of  bay-salt  are  made  annually  at 
Porto  Ferraio  in  Italy;  large  quantities  also  at  Trapani  in 
Sicily,  and  in  various  parts  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediter¬ 
ranean.  Also  in  the  Cape  de  Verd  islands  they  prepare 
bay-salt,  and  particularly  in  the  island  of  Tortuga,  near  the 
coast  of  Terra  Firma,  in  America,  which  supplies  the  best 
part  of  North  America. 

The  white  salt  of  Normandy  is  made  by  refining  the  bay- 
salt,  but  has  this '  colour  naturally,  when  taken  out  of  the 
pits.  To  make  it,  they  gather  a  muddy  sand  on  the  fiats 
of  the  shore,  which  the  rising  tide  has  covered,  and  impreg¬ 
nated  with  its  waters  for  seven  days.  This  sand  being  re¬ 
moved  into  pits  for  the  purpose,  discharges  itself  by  degrees 
of  all  the  water,  which  filtrates  through  some  straw  where¬ 
with  the  bottom  of  the  pit  is  filled,  and  trickles  into  vessels 
set  on  purpose  to  receive  it;  of  which  water  they  make  the 
Salt. 

The  English  and  Dutch,  and  in  times  of  war  the  Danes 
and  Swedes,  take  most  of  the  salts  of  Bretagne.  That  of 
Guerande  is  preferred  by  the  English  and  Irish  to  all  the 
rest,  as  the  best  and  whitest.  That  of  Borneuf,  though 
browner  and  heavier,  is  most  used  in  France  and  in  the 
Baltic. 


294 


The  English  and  Dutch  have  frequently  strove  hard  in 
times  of  war  to  do  without  the  French  Salt,  and  to  that 
end ‘have  endeavoured  to  supply  their  wants  from  Spain,  Por¬ 
tugal,  and  Italy*,  but  there  is  a  disagreeable  sharpness  and  se- 
rosity  natural  to  them,  which  renders  them  not  so  fit  for  the 
salting  of  fish  and  flesh;  and  they  always  eagerly  return  to 
the  Salts  of  Bretagne,  as  soon  as  any  treaty  has  opened  the 
commerce. 

The  process  of  obtaining  Salt  from  springs,  by  boiling  or 
co£lion,  is  as  follows.  The  boiling  house  is  furnished  with  a 
furnace,  and  one  or  two  large  iron  pans.  The  pan  being 
filled  with  the  liquor,  a  strong  pit-coal  fire  is  lighted,  and 
when  the  water  is  lukewarm,  some  white  of  eggs,  or  blood 
of  sheep  or  oxen,  is  thrown  into  it,  and  stirred  about  to  cla¬ 
rify  it;  and  as  the  water  gets  hotter,  the  black  frothy  scum 
which  arises  is  taken  off.  After  boiling  the  liquor  briskly 
about  four  hours,  a  pan  of  about  fifteen  inches  depth,  will 
begin  to'  form  crystals  on  its  surface.  The  pan  is  then  filled 
up  a  second  time  with  fresh  water,  and  this  second  filling  is 
boiled  down  in  the  same  manner  as  the  first,  and  so  a  third, 
and  fourth;  but  in  the  evaporation  of  the  fourth,  when  the 
crystals  begin  to  form  themselves,  they  slacken  the  fire,  and 
only  keep  the  liquor  simmering.  In  this  heat  they  keep  it 
all  the  while  the  Salt  is  granulating,  which  is  nine  or  ten 
hours.  When  the  Salt. lays  nearly  dry  they  rake  it  all  toge¬ 
ther  into  a  long  heap  on  one  side  of  the  pan,  where  it  lies  a 
while  to  drain  from  the  brine,  and  then  is  carried  to  the 
storehouse.  In  this  manner  the  whole  process  is  performed 
in  twenty-four  hours.  In  some  salt-works  they  fill  the  pan 
seven  times  before  they  boil  up  the  Salt,  and  so  make  it  out 
but  once  in  two  days.  In  the  common  way,  of  four  boilings 
with  a  pan  of  the  usual  size,  containing  one  thousand  three 
hundred  gallons,  they  draw  from  fifteen  to  twenty  bushels 
of  Salt  every  day,  each  bushel  weighing  fifty  six  pounds. 

When  the  Salt  is  carried  into  the  storehouse  it  is  put  up 
into  drabs,  which. are  partitions  like  stalls  for  horses,  lined  at 
three  sides  and  the  bottom  with  boards,  and  having  a  sli¬ 
ding  board  oh  the  foreside,  to  draw  up  on  occasion.  The 
bottbrns  are  made  shelving,  being  highest  at  the  back,  and 
gradually  inclining  forward.  By  this  means  the  brine  remain¬ 
ing  among  the  Salt  easily  separates  and  runs  from  it,  and  the 
Salt,  in  three  or  four  days  becomes  sufficiently  dry.  In  some 
places  they  use  long  and  conic  wicker  baskets,  and  in  others 
wooden  troughs,  with  holes  in  the  bottom,  for  this  purport. 


295 


What  is  called  basket  Salt  is  fine  white  Salt  obtained  from 
our  salt  springs.  It  is  usually  the  weakest  of  all  Saits. 

Brine  springs  are  fountains  which  flow  with  salt-water. 
Of  these  there  are  a  good  many,  particularly  in  South  Britain. 
At  a  place  called  Salt-water  Plaugh,  near  Butterpy,  in  the 
Bishopric  of  Durham,  there  are  a  multitude  of  salt-springs 
which  rise  in  the  river  Weare,  for  the  space  of  about  forty 
yards  in  length,  and  ten  in  breadth,  but  particularly  one  out 
of  a  rock,  which  is  so  strong,  that  in  a  hot  summer  the  sur¬ 
face  will  be  covered  with  pure  white  Salt.  Namptwich  on 
the  river  Weever,  and  Northwich  on  the  confluence  of  the 
Weever  and  the  Dan,  in  Cheshire,  have  very  rich  Salt 
brines,  the  latter  so  much  so,  that  they  obtain  six  ounces  of 
Salt  out  of  sixteen  of  water.  That  at  Namptwich,  according 
to  the  account  of  the  people  of  the  place,  could  be  worked 
so  as  to  yield  a  sufficiency  of  Salt  for  the  whole  kingdom. 
In  Lancashire!-  he  spring  at  Barton  is  also  very  rich. 

The  fossile  or  rock  Salt  makes  a  considerable  article  of 
commerce.  The  mines  of  Wilisca  in  Poland,  and  those  near 
Eperies  in  Hungary  are  particularly  famous.  Their  depth 
and  capacity  are  surprising,  and  within  them  is  found  a  kind 
of  a  subterraneous  republic.  The  rocks  of  Salt  are  hewn  in 
form  of  great  cylinders;  the  workmen  using  hammers,  pick- 
axes,  and  chissels,  as  in  stone  quarries,  to  separate  the  several 
banks  of  stone.  As  soon  as  the  massive  pieces  are  got  out 
of  the  quarry  they  break  them  into  fragments,  fit  to  be 
thrown  into  the  mill,  where  they  are  ground  and  reduced 
into  a  coarse  flour,  which  serves  all  the  uses  of  sea-salt.  The 
salt  mines  of  Catalonia  in  Spain  are  found  in  the  mountains 
of  the  dutchy  of  Cordonna. 

The  rock-salt  exported  from  Liverpool  makes  a  con¬ 
siderable  article  of  commerce,  and  goes  principally  to  the 


Baltic. 


SALTPETRE,  nitre. 


F.  Salpetre,  Nitre,  Nitre. 

G.  S a' peter. 

D.  Salpeter. 

I.  Nitro ,  Salriitro. 

S.  Nitro,  Salitre . 


P.  Salitre . 


POL.  Saletra,  Salnitra . 


R.  Senitra. 
L.  Nitrum. 


Vegetable  fixed  alkali,  combined  with  the  nitrous  acid,  to 
the  p:  >int  of  saturation,  and  an  addition  of  some  quick-lime, 
produces  Saltpetre. 


29  6 


Saltpetre  is  made  in  great  plenty  in  the  more  southern 
parts  of  Europe;  likewise  in  the  southern  parts  of  Persia,  in 
China,  the  East  Indies  and  in  North  America.  In  Podolia, 
in  Poland,  it  is  obtained  from  tumuli  or  hillocks,  which  are 
the  remains  of  former  habitations.  In  Spain  it  is  said,  the 
inhabitants  extract  it  from  the  soil,  after  a  crop  of  corn.  In 
America  it  has  been  found  in  limestone  grounds,  in  the 
floors  of  pigeon  houses,  tobacco  houses,  or  the  ruins  of  old 
stables.  In  Hanover  it  is  got  by  collecting  the  rakings  of 
the  streets,  which  are  built  of  mudwalls;  and  the  peasants 
are  directed  by  law  to  build  mudwalls,  with  the  dung  and 
urine  of  animals  and  some  straw.  After  they  have  stood 
for  sometime,  and  the  vegetable  and  animal  substances 
are  rotten,  they  afford  a  considerable  quantity  of  Nitre. 
In  France  it  is  obtained  from  accidental  collections,  as  were 
loose  earth  has  been  exposed  for  some  time  to  the  contact 
of  animal  substances,  like  the  grounds  of  stables,  ruins  of 
pigeon  houses,  sometimes  from  the  mould  upon  the  ground 
where  dunghills  have  been  laying.  The  general  account  is, 
that  in  the  East  Indies  it  is  obtained  from  the  soil  of  certain 
distrits,  which  are  called  Saltpetre  ground ;  where  the  soil 
is  very  cold,y  barren,  and  unhealthy.  To  extrat  the  salt, 
it  is  there  only  necessary  to  gather  large  quantities  of  the 
impregnated  earth,  and  to  put  them  into  a  cavity,  through 
which  a  great  quantity  of  water  is  poured,  which  dissolves 
the  Nitre;  and  the  lixivium  runs  into  an  adjacent  pit,  out 
of  which  it  is  lifted,  in  order  to  be  evaporated,  and  obtain¬ 
ed  in  the  form  of  crystals.  In  Germany  and  France  the 
Saltpetre  boilers  go  about  in  search  of  these  materials,  and 
when,  on  making  a  small  essay,  they  find  that  they  will  turn, 
to  account,  they  put  the  earth  or  other  materials  into  a  large 
tub,  pour  water  upon  it,  and  let  it  stand  so  for  several  days, 
A  cock  is  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  tub,  and  to  its  inside 
opening  some  straw  is  applied,'  so  that  when  the  cock  is 
opened,  the  lixivium  filters  through  the  straw,  and  is  re¬ 
ceived  in  another  tub,  and  from  thence  conveyed  in  a  cop¬ 
per,  and  boiled  to  a  proper  consistence  for  crystallization. 
The  crystals  are  at  first  brown  and  very  impure,  but  by  re¬ 
peated  dissolution  and  crystallization,  become  white  and 
pure. 

Saltpetre  in  general  therefore  is  extracted  from  artificial 
compounds  or  accidental  mixtures,  where  animaj  and  vege¬ 
table  substances  have  been  fully  putrified,  by  being  exposed 
to  the  air  with  any  spongy  or  loose  earth,  especially  of  the 
calcareous  kind;  open  to  the  north  or  north-east  winds,  and 


$37 


more  or  less  covered  from  the  heat  and  rains.  Cramer,  an 
author  of  the  greatest  credit,  informs  us,  that  he  made  a 
little  hut,  with  windows  to  admit  the  wind.'  In  this  he  put 
a  mixture  of  garden  mould,  the  rubbish  of  lime,  and  pu¬ 
trid  animal  and  vegetable  substances.  He  frequently  mois¬ 
tened  them  with  urine,  and  in  a  month  or  two  found  his 
composition  very  rich  in  Saltpetre,  yielding  at  least  one 
eighth  part  of  its  weight. 

Saltpetre  is  of  very  extensive  use  in  different  arts ;  being 
the  principal  ingredient  in  gunpowder  ;  and  serving  as  an 
excellent  flux  to  other  matters:  whence  its  use  in  glass  ma¬ 
king.  It  is  also  possessed  of  a  considerable  antiseptic  pow¬ 
er;  whence  its  use  in  preserving  meat,  to  which  it  commu¬ 
nicates  a  red  colour.  In  medicine  it  is  used  as  a  diuretic, 
sedative,  and  cooler.  Nitre  is  also  used  in  the  oil  of  vitriol 
manufactories. 

SAPPHIRE. 


F.  Sapbir. 

G.  Sappbir. 

D.  Sajjier  steen. 
I.  Zajfiro. 

S.  Sajir. 

P.  Safra. 


DA.  Sapbir. 
SW.  Sapbir. 
POL.  Szajir. 
R.  Jachant . 
L.  Sappbir  as. 


The  Sapphire  is  a  pellucid  gem,  which  in  its  finest  state 
is  extremely  beautiful  and  valuable,  and  inferior  only  to  the 
diamond  in  lustre,  hardness  and  price.  Its  proper  colour 
is  a  pure  blue:  in  the  finest  specimens  it  is  of  the  deepest 
azure,  and  in  others  varies  into  paleness,  in  shades  of  all 
degrees  between  that  and  a  pure  crystal  brightness,  without 
the  least  tinge  of  colour.  This  gem  is  distinguished  into 
four  sorts;  the  blue,  the  white,  the  water,  and  the  milk 
Sapphire. 

This  stone  in  its  greatest  perfection  is  brought  from  the 
kingdom  of  Pegu  in  the  East  Indies;  always  in  the  shape  of 
pebbles.  Very  fine  Sapphires  also,  partly  pebble,  partly 
crystal  shaped,  and  of  all  the  shades  of  blue,  come  from 
Bisnager,  Conanor,  Calicut,  and  the  island  of  Ceylon.  The 
occidental  Sapphires  are  from  Silesia,  Bohemia,  and  many 
other  parts  of  Europe;  but  they  are  greatly  inferior  in 
lustre  and  hardness  to  the  oriental  ones. 


pP 


298 


SARSAPARILLA. 


F.  Salseparesille. 

G.  Sassaparille. 
D.  Sarzaparille. 
I.  Salsapariglia . 
S.  Zurzaparilla. 


P.  Salsa-parilha. 
DA.  Sarsa-parille. 
SW.  Sarsaparilla . 
L.  Sarsaparilla . 


Sarsaparilla  is  the  root  of  the  smilax  Sarsaparilla,  a  plant 
growing  in  America,  and  particularly  abundantly  in  Jamaica, 
whence  we  receive  it.  It  has  stems  of  the  thickness  of  a 
man’s  finger,  they  are  jointed,  triangular,  and  beset  with 
crooked  spines.  The  leaves  are  alternate,  smooth,  and  shi¬ 
ning  on  the.  upper  side.  The  flower  is  yellow  mixed  with 
red.  The  fruit  is  a  black  berry  containing  several  brown 
seeds.  The  roots,  which  are  about  the  size  of  a  goose  quill, 
run  superficially  under  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  ga¬ 
therers  have  only  to  loosen  the  soil  a  little,  and  to  draw  out 
the  long  fibres  with  a  'wooden  hook.  In  this  manner  they 
proceed  till  the  whole  root  is  got  out.  It  is  then  cleared  of 
the  mud,  dried,  and  made  into  bundles. 

The  sensible  qualities  of  Sarsaparilla  are  mucilaginous  and 
farinaceous*,  and  it  is  esteemed  in  medicine  as  a  gentle  sudo¬ 
rific,  and  powerful  in  attenuating  the  blood  when  impeded 
by  gross  humours. 

SASSAFRAS. 


F.  Sassafras. 

G.  Sassafrass . 
D.  Sassafrass. 
I.  Sassafrasso. 
S.  Sasafras. 

P.  Sa  ssafraz,) 


Salsafraz. 


DA.  Sassafras . 
SW  Sassafras. 
POL  Sasafras. 
R.  Sasafras . 

L.  Sassafras . 


The  laurus  Sassafras,  or  Sassafrass  tree,  is  a  native  of 
North  America,  and  grows  in  the  greatest  perfection  in  Flo¬ 
rida.  Its  roots  are  even  with  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Its 
trunk  which  is  very  straight,  without  leaves,  and  not  high, 
is  covered  with  a  thick  and  dirty  bark,  of  an  ash  colour, 
and  throws  out  a  number  of  branches,  which  spread  out 
on  the  coast.  The  leaves  are  disposed  alternately,  green 
on  the  upper,  and  white  on  the  under  surface,  sometimes 
divided  into  three  lobes,  sometimes  entire,  of  different  sizes, 
from  three  to  six  inches  long,  and  near  as  broad,  with  clus* 


299 


ters  of  small  yellowish  flowers,  succeeded  by  small  blackish 
pendent  berries,  fixed  to  a  red  pedicle  and  to  a  calix  of  the 
same  colour. 

The  root  of  the  Sassafrass  has  a  fragrant  smell,  and  a 
sweetish,  aromatic,  subacrid  taste;  the  bark  tastes  much 
stronger  than  any  other  part,  and  the  small  twigs  stronger 
than  the  large  pieces.  It  is  a  warm  aperient  and  corroborant, 
and  frequently  employed  with  good  success  for  purifying 
and  sweetening  the  blood  and  juices.  For  these  purposes 
decoctions  are  made  from  the  rasped  root  or  bark. 

In  America  the  bark  of  this  tree  is  used  for  dying  worsted 
a  fine  lasting  orange  colour:  some  people  also  boil  the  peel 
of  the  root  with  the  beer  which  they  are  brewing,  because 
they  believe  it  wholesome.  The  flowers  are  used  instead  of 
tea. 


SAUNDERS,  sanders. 


F.  Santal,  Sandal, 

G.  Sandelholz. 

D.  Sandelhout. 

I.  Sandalo, 

S.  Sandalo. 

P.  Sandalo . 


DA.  Sandelholt . 
SW.  Sandel . 
POL,  Cyndal . 
R.  Sanaal . 

L.  Sant  alum. 


Saunders  is  a  hard  odoriferous  wood  the  produce  of  the 
pterocarpus  santalinus,  brought  from  the  East  Indies.  Of 
this  there  are  three  sorts  :  the  yellow,  white,  and  red. 

The  yellow  or  citrine  Saunders  is  a  beautiful  wood  of  the 
colour  of  lemon  peel,  of  a  smell  resembling  a  mixture  of 
musk  and  roses,  and  of  a  somewhat  acrid  taste  with  a  slight 
bitterness. 

The  white  Saunders  resembles  the  yellow,  and  is  of  the 
same  fragrant  smell  and  aromatic  taste,  but  in  a  more  remiss 
degree.  Both  these  sorts  should  be  chosen  sound,  firm, 
heavy,  and  of  a  good  smell  when  cut;  they  should  also 
be  chosen  in  the  block,  and  not  cut  into  chips  as  they  usu¬ 
ally  are. 

The  red  Saunders  is  of  a  dense  and  compact  texture,  re¬ 
markably  heavy,  and  very  hard.  It  is  brought  to  us  in  logs 
of  considerable  length,  the  out  part  of  which  is  of  a  dusky, 
and  the  inner  of  a  blood  red.  It  has  but  little  smell  and 
taste. 


300 


Brazil  wood  is  frequently  sold  for  red  Saunders;  but  the 
latter  can  principally  be  distinguished  from  the  former,  by 
its  not  giving  any  tinge  to  aqueous  liquors,  whereas  Brazil 
wood  imparts  its  colour  to  water. 

These  three  kinds  of  wood  enter  into  the  materia  medi- 
ca;  they  are  also  used  by  the  turners  and  cabinet  makers, 
and  the  red  by  the  dyers. 

SCAMMONY. 

F.  Sammonee. 

G.  Skammonie. 

D.  Skammoneum . 

I.  Scamonea. 

S.  Escamonea. 

Scammony  is  the  produce  of  a  species  of  convolvulus,  or 
creeper  plant,  which  grows  wild  in  the  vales  between  Naza¬ 
reth  and  Mount  Carmel. 

The  Scammony  is  prepared  from  the  root  and  the  stalk 
of  the  plant,  and  when  genuine,  ought  to  be  like  a  fine 
clear  gum,  of  a  darkish  grey,  light  and  brittle;  and  in  chew¬ 
ing,  ought  to  yield  a  white  milky  froth. 

The  best  Scammony  is  brought  from  Marasch,  a  town 
about  four  days  journey  from  Aleppo,  near  the  confines  of 
Armenia.  It  is  thence  brought  to  Aleppo  in  small  skins, 
and  by  the  merchants  sent  to  London  and  Marseilles.  It  was 
formerly  to  be  had  very  good  from  Mount  Carmel  by  way  of 
Acra;  but  at  present  scarcely  any  comes  from  that  place,  as 
the  Arabian  inhabitants  of  the  mountain  have  neglected  to 
gather  it,  being  more  addicted  to  plunder  than  labour. 

Scammony  is  regularly  used  in  the  materia  medica  as  % 
purgative. 

SCARLET  BERRIES,  see  Kermes . 

SEED  LAC,  see  Lac. 

SELTZER  WATER 

Is  a  mineral  water  which  springs  up  at  Lower  Seltzer,  a 
village  in  the  Ele&orate  of  'Friers,  about  ten  miles  from 
Fiankfurth  on  the  Mayne.  This  is  a  very  useful  medicinal 
water,  It  contains,  according  to  some,  a  small  portion  of 
calcareous  earth,  a  native  mineral  alkali,  and  acid,  also  near 


P.  Escamonea. 
DA.  Skammonium. 
SW.  Scammonium . 
L.  Scammonium. 


301 


®ne-seventh  of  its  bulk  of  fixed  air;  which  latter  is  more 
than  is  found  in  any  other  mineral  water. 

This  water  was  formerly  imported  in  considerable  quan¬ 
tities;  but,  at  present,  almost  all  the  Seltzer  water  drank  in 
Great  Britain,  is  artificial.  This  is  more  pleasant  to  the 
taste  than  the  natural  Seltzer  water,  as  the  saline  particles, 
of  a  disagreeable  taste,  and  which  contribute  nothing  to  its 
medicinal  virtue,  are  left  out  of  the  composition.  It  is  like¬ 
wise  considerably  stronger. 


SENA,  SENNA. 


F.  Sene ,  Sene  enfeuilles . 

G.  Senna ,  Senesbldtter. 
D.  Seneb  laden . 

I.  Sena. 

S.  Sen ,  Sena. 

P.  Sene,  Senna. 


DA.  Semshlader. 
SW.  Sennet sblader. 
POL.  Sene,  Senna.. 
R.  Senetnue  listu. 
L.  Senna  folia. 


The  cassia  Senna,  from  which  the  Sena  leaf  is  taken,  is 
a  shrubby  plant,  cultivated  in  Persia  and  Syria,  but  parti¬ 
cularly  in  Upper  Egypt,  and  that  part  of  Arabia  which  lies 
opposite  to  it.  The  leaves  are  of  an  oblong  figure,  sharp 
pointed  at  the  ends,  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  broad,  and 
not  a  full  inch  in  length,  of  a  lively  yellowish  green  colour, 
a  faint,  not  disagreeable  smell,  and  a  subacrid,  bitterish, 
nauseous'  taste.  That  which  is  called  Sena  of  Alexandria 
grows  in  great  abundance  in  the  territory  of  Abu  Arisch,  in 
Arabia.  The  Arabians  sell  it  at  Mecca  and  Jidda,  whence 
it  passes  by  the  way  of  Suez  and  Kahira  to  Alexandria,  and 
from  thence  is  imported  into  Europe.  It  is  brought  from 
the  above  countries  dried,  and  picked  from  the  stalks.  Some 
inferior  sorts  are  brought  from  Tripoli,  and  other  places; 
these  may  easily  be  distinguished  by  the  shape  and  dimen¬ 
sions  of  the  leaves,  being  different  from  the  good  Sena,  of  a 
fresh  green  colour,  without  any  yellow  cast. 

The  Sena  Italica,  or  blunt  leaved  Sena,'  is  a  variety  of 
the  Alexandria  species,  which,  by  its  cultivation  in  the  South 
of  France,  has  been  found  to  assume  this  change.  It  is  less 
purgative  than  the  pointed  leaved  Sena. 

Sena  in  medicine,  is  a  very  useful  cathartic. 


SHELL  LAC,  see  Lac. 


302 


SHUMAC. 


F.  Sumac ,  Roure ,  Roux. 

G.  Sumach,  Schmack. 

D.  Sumak ,  Smak. 

I.  Sommaco. 

S.  Zumaque. 

P.  Sumagre ,  Cumagre . 


DA.  Smak,  Sumak . 

SVV.  Sumach ,  Smack. 

POL  Garbarskie  drze-joke, 
Macznika. 

R.  Sumak. 

L.  coriaricrum. 


The  Shumac  plant  is  a  myrtle  leaved  shrub,  cultivated  in 
Sicily,  Portugal,  the  South  of  Spain,  and  France.  The 
French  Shumac  is  very  little  esteemed,  even  by  the  dyers 
of  that  countrv.  Sicily  Shumac  is  the  best  and  most  valua¬ 
ble. 

The  leaves  and  flowers  are  stripped  off  the  bush,  dried, 
pounded  to  powder,  and  exported  from  Spain  in  skins,  and 
from  Sicily  in  bags.  These  plants  are  set  in  the  shade  of 
olive  trees,  and  remain  in  vigour  about  twenty  years. 

The  prime  quality  of  Sicily  Shumac  comes  from  Alcamo, 
and  is  shipped  in  the  gulf  of  Castellomare.  Inferior  sorts 
are  coming  from  Carini,  Calatafini,  Montreale,  Termini,  &c. 
There  are  also  some  places  on  the  southern  coasts  of  the 
Island  producing  Shumac,  but  of  an  indifferent  quality. 
The  crop,  in  Sicily,  is  made  in  July  and  August. 

The  goodness  of  Shumac  shews  itself  by  its  strong  smell, 
fine  greenish,  lively  colour,  and  by  its  being  well  ground, 
and  free  of  stalks,  though  the  Spanish  Shumac  is  never  free 
of  them. 

Shumac,  on  account  of  its  astringent  quality,  is  used  for 
tanning  Spanish  and  other  fine  sorts  of  leather. 


SICILIAN  EARTH,  see  Fossil  Bezoar. 


SILK. 


F.  Sole. 

G.  Siedc. 

D.  Zyde,  Zy. 
I.  Seta. 

S.  Seda. 

P.  Seda. 


DA.  Silke. 

SW.  Silke. 
POL.  Jedwab. 
R.  Sc  be  Ik. 

L.  Sericum. 


Silk  is  a  very  soft,  fine,  bright  thread,  the  work  of  an 
insedt  called  bombyx,  or  the  silk  worm. 


$03 


As  the  silk  worm  is  a  native  of  China,  the  culture  of  the 
silk,  in  ancient  times,  was  entirely  confined  to  that  country. 
Till  the  reign  of  Justinian  the  silk  worm  was  unknown  be¬ 
yond  the  territories  of  China;  but  silk  was  introduced  into 
Persia  long  before  that  period.  After  the  conquest  of  the 
Persian  empire  by  Alexander  the  great,  this  valuable  com¬ 
modity  was  brought  into  Greece,  and  thence  conveyed  to 
Rome.  The  first  of  the  Roman  writers  extant,  by  whom 
Silk  is  mentioned,  are  Virgil  and  Horace;  but  it  is  probable, 
that  neither  of  them  knew  from  what  country  it  was  obtained, 
nor  how  it  was  produced.  Among  the  Romans,  Silk  was 
deemed  a  dress  too  expensive  and  delicate  for  men,  and  was 
appropriated  wholly  to  women  of  eminent  rank  and  opulence. 
Aurelian  complained,  that  a  pound  of  silk  was  sold  at  Rome 
for  twelve  ounces  of  gold;  and  it  is  said,  he  refused  to  give 
his  wife  permission  to  wear  it,  on  account  of  its  exorbitant 
price. 

For  several  centuries  the  Persians  supplied  the  Roman 
Empire  with  the  silks  of  China.  Caravans  traversed  the 
whole  latitude  of  Asia  in  243  days,  from  the  Chinese  ocean 
to  the  sea  coasts  of  Syria,  carrying  this  commodity.  Some¬ 
times  it  was  conveyed  to  the  ports  of  Guzerat  and  Malabar, 
and  thence  transported  by  sea  to  the  Persian  Gulph.  The 
Persians,  with  the  usual  rapacity  of  monopolists,  raised  the 
price  of  Silk  to  such  an  exorbitant  height,  that  Justinian 
endeavoured  by  means  of  his  ally,  the  Christian  monarch  of 
Abyssinia,  to  wrest  some  portion  of  the  Silk  trade  from  the 
Persians.  In  this  attempt  he  failed,  but  he  obtained,  in 
some  measure,  by  an  unforeseen  event,  the  object  which  he 
had  in  view.  Two  Persian  monks  having  been  employed  as 
missionaries  in  some  of  the  Christian  churches  which  were 
established  in  different  parts  of  India,  had  penetrated  into 
the  country  of  the  Seres,  or  China.  There  they  observed 
the  labours  of  the  silk  worm,  and  became  acquainted  with 
all  the  arts  of  man,  in  working  up  its  productions  into  such 
a  variety  of  elegant  fabrics.  They  repaired  to  Constanti¬ 
nople,  to  explain  to  the  Emperor  the  discoveries  they  had 
made,  and  encouraged  by  his  liberal  promises,  they  under¬ 
took  to  bring  to  the  capital,  a  sufficient  number  of  these 
wonderful  inseCts;  which  they  accomplished,  by  conveying 
the  eggs  of  the  silk  worm  in  a  hollow  cane. 

Vast  numbers  of  these  inserts  were  soon  reared  in  different 
parts  of  Greece.  Sicily  afterwards  undertook  to  breed  silk¬ 
worms  with  equal  success;  and  was  imitated  by  several  towns 
of  Italy.  In  ail  these  places  extensive  manufactories  were 


504 


established  and  carried  on  with  silk  of  domestic  production. 
The  demand  for  Silk  from  the  East  diminished  of  course,  and 
a  considerable  change  took  place  ifi  the  nature  of  the  com¬ 
mercial  intercourse  between  Europe  and  Tndia. 

The  silkworm  is  a  species  of  caterpillar,  which,  like  all 
others  of  the  sam£  class,  undergoes  a  variety  of  changes,  that, 
to  persons  who  are  not  acquainted  with  objects  of  this  kind, 
will  appear  to  be  not  a  little  surprising. 

It  is  produced  from  a  yellowish  coloured  egg,  about  the 
size  of  a  small  pin’s  head,  which  has  been  laid  by  a  greyish 
coloured  moth,  vulgarly  confounded  with  the  butterfly. 
These  eggs,  in  the  temperature  of  this  climate,  even  in  sum¬ 
mer,  may  be  prevented  from  hatching,  if  they  be  kept  in 
a  cool  place;  and  when  the  food  on  which  the  worm  is  fed 
is  in  perfection,  the  eggs  need  only  be  exposed  to  the 
sun  for  a  day  or  two,  when  they  will  be  hatched  with  great 
facility. 

When  the  animal  is  first  protruded  from  the  egg  it  is 
a  small  black  worm,  which  is  aCtive  in  search  of  food.  At 
this  stage  of  his  growth  the  silkworm  requires  to  be  fed 
with  the  youngest  and  most  tender  leaves.  On  these  he  will 
feed  very  freely  for  about  eight  days,  during  which  period 
he  increases  in  size  to  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length. 
He  is  then  attacked  with  his  first  sickness,  which  consists 
in  a  sort  of  lethargic  sleep  for  about  three  days  continuance; 
during  which  time  he  refuses  to  eat,  and  changes  his  skin; 
preserving  the  same  bulk.  This  sleep  being  over,  he  begins 
to  eat  again  during  five  days,  at  which  term  he  is  grown  to 
the  size  of  full  half  an  inch  in  length.  After  this  follows 
a  second,  then  a  third,  and  a  fourth  sickness,  in  every 
respeCt  like  the  former;  and  after  every  sickness  he  feeds 
again  for  five  days.  At  the  time  he  is  attacked  by  his  fourth 
sickness  he  is  arrived  at  his  full  growth;  and  on  recovering, 
he  feeds  once  more  during  five  days  with  a  most  voracious 
appetite;  after  which  he  disdains  his  food,  becomes  transpa¬ 
rent,  a  little  on  the  yellowish  cast,  and  leaves  his  silky  traces 
on  the  leaves  where  he  passes.  These  signs  denote  that  he 
is  ready  to  begin  his  cocoon.  Thus  it  appears,  that  the 
whole  duration  of  the  life  of  the  worm,  in  this  state  of  his 
existence,  in  our  climate,  is  usually  about  forty  days;  twen¬ 
ty-eight  of  which  days  he  takes  food,  and  remains  in  his 
sick  or  torpid  state  about  twelve;  but  it  is  to  be  observed, 
that  warm  weather  shortens,  and  cold  weather  lengthens  the 
periods  of  sickness. 


305 


When  the  worm  is  come  to  full  perfection  it  searches  about 
for  a  convenient  place  for  forming  its  cocoon,  and  mounts 
upon  any  branches  or  twigs  that  are  put  in  its  way  for  that 
purpose.  After  about  two  days  spent  in  this  manner,  it 
settles  in  its  place,  and  forms  the  cocoon  by  winding  the 
Silk,  which  it  draws  from  its  bowels,  round  itself,  into  an 
oblong  roundish  ball.  During  this  operation  it  gradually 
loses  the  appearance  of  a  worm;  its  length  is  much  con¬ 
tracted,  and  its  thickness  augmented.  By  the  time  the  web 
is  finished,  it  is  found  to  be  transformed  into  an  oblong 
roundish  ball,  covered  with  a  smooth  shelly  skin,  and  appears 
to  be  perfectly  dead. 

In  this  state  it  remains  for  several  days,  entirely  motion¬ 
less,  in  the  heart  of  the  cocoon,  after  which  it  bursts,  like 
an  egg  hatching,  and  from  that  comes  forth  a  heavy,  dull 
looking  moth  with  wings;  but  these  wings  it  never  uses  for 
flying.  This  creature  forces  its  way  through  the  Silk  co¬ 
vering  which  the  worm  had  woven,  goes  immediately  in 
quest  of  its  mate,  after  which  the  female  lays  her  eggs;  and 
both  male  and  female,  without  tasting  food  in  this  stage  of 
their  existence,  die  in  a  very  short  time. 

The  Silk  worm,  when  at  its  full  size,  is  from  an  inch  and 
a  quarter,  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length,  and  about  half 
an  inch  in  circumference.  He  is  either  of  a  milk  or  pearl 
colour,  or  blackish;  these  last  are  esteemed  the  best.  His 
body  is  divided  into  seven  rings,  to  each  of  which  are  joined 
two  very  short  feet.  He  has  a  very  small  point  like  a  thorn 
exaCtly  above  the  anus.  The  substance  which  forms  the 
Silk  is  in  his  stomach,  which  is  very  long,  wound  up  as  it 
were  upon  two  spindles,  and  surrounded  with  a  gum,  com¬ 
monly  yellowish,  sometimes  white,  but  seldom  greenish. 
When  the  worm  spins  his  cocoon  he  winds  off  a  thread  from 
each  of  his  spindles,  and  joins  them  afterwards  by  means  of 
two  hooks  which  are  placed  in  his  mouth,  so  that  the  cocoon 
is  formed  of  a  double  thread. 

Of  Silk  worms,  as  of  most  animals,  there  is  a  considerable 
variety  of  breeds,  some  of  which  are  much  more  hardy,  and 
possess  qualities  considerably  different  from  others.  This 
is  a  particular  of  much  importance  to  be  adverted  to  at  the 
time  of  beginning  to  breed  these  creatures  in  any  place. 

Though  the  Silk  worm  be  a  native  of  China,  there  is  no 
doubt,  but  it  might  be  propagated  in  most  parts  of  the  tem¬ 
perate  zones.  The  mulberry  tree,  upon  the  leaves  of  which 
it  lives,  is  a  hardy  vegetable,  bearing  without  injury  even 
the  winters  of  Siberia,  and  could  without  doubt  be  reared  in 

Q  q 


306 


Great  Britain.  Nature  therefore  has  furnished  us  with  every 
thing  necessary  for  the  Silk  manufa&ure. 

The  cocoons  from  which  the  Silk  is  to  be  immediately 
wound  must  be  exposed  to  the  heat  of  an  oven,  in  order  to 
kill  the  chrysalis  or  aurelia,  which  would  otherwise  eat  its 
way  through  the  cocoon  and  render  it  useless.  Good  co¬ 
coons  are  small,  strong,  and  firm,  have  a  fine  grain,  both 
ends  round,  and  they  are  free  from  spots.  Of  the  bad  co¬ 
coons  there  are  six  species.  1.  The  pointed  cocoons,  one  ex¬ 
tremity  of  which  ends  in  a  point;  the  Silk  which  covers  the 
point  is  weak,  and  soon  breaks  or  tears.  2.  The  cocalomy 
*  which  are  bigger,  but  the  contexture  is  weak.  3.  The  du- 
pionsy  or  double  cocoons.  4.  The  souffionsy  which  have  a 
loose  contexture,  sometimes  so  loose,  that  they  are  transpa¬ 
rent.  5.  The  perforated  cocoons,  which  have  a  hole  at  one 
end.  6.  The  bad  choquettey  which  is  composed  of  defective 
cocoons,  spotted  or  rotten. 

The  cocoons  which  are  kept  for  breeding  are  called  royal 
cocoons.  The  largest  and  the  best  cocoons  ought  to  be  pre¬ 
served  for  breed,  about  an  equal  number  of  males  and  fe¬ 
males,  though  one  male  will  serve  two  or  three  females,  if 
the  time  of  their  coming  out  of  the  cocoon  answers.  About 
twelve  or  fifteen  days  after  they  begin  to  spin,  the  cocoons 
for  breed  may  be  laid  on  sheets  of  white  paper;  as  about  this 
time  the  moth  opens  for  itself  a  passage  through  the  end  of 
the  cocoon.  When  this  female  has  laid  her  eggs,  which 
on  an  average  may  amount  to  two  hundred  and.  fifty,  they 
are  spread  upon  paper,  and  hung  up  to  dry  in  some  cool 
place. 

The  next  operation  is  the  winding  of  the  Silk,  before  which 
the  cocoons  must  be  prepared  as  follows: 

1.  Strip  them  of  the  waste  Silk  that  surrounds  them,  and 
which  served  to  fasten  them  to  the  twigs.  This  burr  is 
proper  to  stuff  quilts,  or  other  such  uses;  you  may  likewise 
spin  it  to  make  stockings,  but  they  will  be  very  coarse  and 
ordinary. 

2.  You  must  sort  your  cocoons,  separating  them  into  dif¬ 
ferent  classes,  in  order  to  wind  them  apart.  These  classes 
are,  the  good  white  cocoons;  the  good  cocoons  of  all  the 
other  colours;  the  dupions;  the  cocalons,  among  which 
are  included  the  weak  cocoons;  the  good  choquette;  and 
lastly,  the  bad  choquette.  In  sorting  the  cocoons  you  will 
always  find  some  perforated  cocoons  among  them,  whose 
worm  is  already  born;  these  you  must  set  apart  for  fleuret. 


507 


You  will  likewise  find  a  few  soufflons;  but  being  very  few 
they  may  be  put  among  the  bad  choquette. 

The  good  cocoons,  as  well  white  as  yellow,  are  the  easi¬ 
est  to  wind;  those  which  require  the  greatest  care  and  pains 
are  the  cocalons;  you  must  wind  them  in  cooler  water  than 
the  others,  and  if  you  take  care  to  give  them  to  a  good 
windster,  you  will  have  as  good  Silk  from  them  as  the  rest. 
You  must  likewise  have  careful  windsters  for  the  dupions 
and  choquettes.  These  two  species  require  hotter  water 
than  the  common  cocoons. 

The  cocoons  produce  a  thread  of  very  unequal  length; 
you  may  meet  with  some  that  yield  more  than  one  thousand 
two  hundred  and  twenty  ells,  whilst  others  will  scarcely 
afford  two  hundred  ells.  In  general  you  may  calculate  the 
production  of  a  cocoon  from  five  to  six  hundred  ells  in 
length. 

The  Silk  imported  in  this  country  is  the  produce  of  Italy, 
Turkey,  and  the  East  Indies. 

The  kingdom  of  Naples  is  computed  to  produce  about 
eight  hundred  thousand  pounds  weight  of  Silk  annually,  of 
which  half  is  supposed  to  be  worked  at  home,  and  the  other 
half  exported  raw.  The  exportation  of  raw  Silk  from  the 
Calabrias,  through  the  customhouse,  is  about  fifty-three 
thousand  pounds;  but  perhaps  double  that  quantity  is  smug¬ 
gled  out.  The  exportation  of  thrown  Silk,  upon  an  average 
of  many  years,  amounts  to  one  hundred  and  forty-eight  thou¬ 
sand  two  hundred  and  seventeen  pounds. 

The  red  mulberry  tree  is  invariably  used  as  food  of  the 
Silk  worm  in  Calabria,  and  it  is  the  opinion  of  the  Silk 
workers,  that  worms  fed  with  it  produce  a  more  compact 
heavy  Silk  than  those  that  live  upon  the  leaves  of  the  white 
one.  This  however  seems  to  be  a  prejudice,  as  the  Chinese, 
Piedmontese,  and  Languedocians  prefer  the  white  sort.  In 
case  of  a  blight  among  the  mulberry  trees,  bramble  tops 
have  been  found  the  best  succedaneum.  The  silk  worm*houses 
in  Calabria  are  mostly  the  property  of  reputable  families  in 
Reggio,  who  furnish  rooms,  leaves,  eggs,  and  every  neces¬ 
sary  implement;  take  two-thirds  of  the  profit,  and  leave  the 
rest  for  the  attendants.  A  succession  of  eggs  is  imported 
from  Leghorn  and  other  places  to  renew  the  breed,  and  by 
frequent  changes  keep  up  the  quality  of  the  Silk. 

Silk  is  an  important  branch  of  the  commerce  of  the  island 
of  Cyprus.  The  breeding  of  Silk  worms  here  is  not  subject 
to  the  inconveniences  arising  from  the  variations  of  the  at¬ 
mosphere,  as  it  is  in  other  parts.  The  finest  and  whitest 


Silk  is  that  produced  in  the  environs  of  Famagusta  and  Car- 
passia.  The  orange  and  sulphur  coloured  comes  from  Cy- 
thera,  or  the  villages  beyond  the  northern  mountains*,  and 
that  of  a  gold  yellow  colour  is  produced  in  the  territory  of 
Paphos  and  the  neighbouring  country.  That  principally 
esteemed  in  Europe  is  the  white  Silk,  with  which  a  little  of 
the  orange  and  sulphur  coloured  is  sometimes  mixed  Venice 
and  Leghorn  receive  both,  though  the  white  Silk  has  also 
there  the  preference.  The  island  produces  on  an  average 
twenty-five  thousand  bags  of  Silk.  It  is  not  uncommon  in 
Cyprus  to  receive  commissions  from  Constantinople,  Aleppo, 
and  Egypt,  for  Silk  which  is  afterwards  sent  to  Europe. 


SILVER. 


F.  Jr  gent. 

G.  Silber. 
D.  Zil'-uer. 
I.  Jr  gent  o. 
S.  Plata. 
P.  Praia. 


DA.  Sol<v. 
SW.  Silfver. 
POL  Srebro. 
R.  Serebro . 

L.  Argentum. 


Silver,  next  to  gold,  is  the  most  perfedf,  fixed,  and  duc¬ 
tile  metal,  and  the  whitest  and  most  brilliant  among  them 
all.  Its  dudtility  and  malleability  is  not  greatly  inferior  to 
that  of  gold,  as  a  grain  of  Silver  leaf  measures  somewhat 
more  than  fifty-one  square  inches;  and  the  Silver  wire  used 
for  astronomical  purposes,  measures  only  the  seven  hundred 
and  fiftieth  part  of  an  inch  in  diameter;  which  is  no  more 
than  half  the  thickness  of  the  hair  of  the  human  head.  It 
is  harder  and  more  elastic  than  lead,  tin,  or  gold;  but  less 
so  than  copper,  platina,  or  iron.  It  is  more  destructible 
than  gold,  and  is  particularly  adted  upon  by  sulphureous 
vapours;  hence  its  surface  tarnishes  in  the  air.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  to  that  of  water  nearly  as  eleven  to  one. 

Though  Silver  is  much  more  difficult  to  calcine  than  other 
metallic  matters,  yet  it  is  capable  of  being  converted  after 
a  long  time  into  a  white  calx,  which  treated  in  a  violent 
fire,  affords  an  olive  coloured  glass.  It  is  found  in  the 
earth. 

1.  Native,  generally  of  the  fineness  of  sixteen  carats. 
Most  of  the  Silver  of  Potosi  in  America,  and  of  Kunsberg 
in  Norway  is  of  this  kind. 

2.  Native,  alloyed  with  other  metals,  particularly  with 
lead,  which  is  said  never  to  be  found  without  some  Silver, 


309 


though  frequently  in  too  small  a  quantity  to  defray  the  ex¬ 
pense  of  separating  it.  The  lead  in  only  one  of  the  smelting 
houses  at  Holywell  in  Flintshire,  produced  no  less  than 
3126|  lb.  of  Silver  from  the  year  1754  to  1756,  and  from 
,1774  to  1776.  There  are  some  lead  ores  in  England,  which, 
though  very  poor  in  that  metal,  contain  between  three  hun¬ 
dred  and  four  hundred  ounces  of  Silver  in  a  ton  of  lead. 

3.  Silver  mineralized  by  various  substances,  as  with  sul¬ 
phur,  arsenic,  copper,  antimony,  lead,  &c. 

Silver  combines  in  all  proportions  with  copper,  by  which 
it  is  not  deprived  of  its  ductility,  but  rendered  harder 
and  more  sonorous.  It  is  on  that  account  often  used  in 
bells.  It  is  otherwise  highly  useful  on  account  of  its  in¬ 
destructibility  by  fire  and  air,  and  its  extreme  ductility. 
Its  fine  colour  renders  it  extremely  proper  for  ornamental 
purposes,  and  it  is  applied  like  gold  on  the  surface  of  diffe¬ 
rent  bodies.  It  likewise  enters  the  texture  of  rich  silks  ;  but 
its  most  considerable  use  is  that  of  being  employed  as  money, 
of  an  inferior  value  to  that  of  gold.  In  this  case  it  is  alloyed 
with  one  twelfth  part  of  copper.  It  is  likewise  often  em¬ 
ployed  in  making  household  utensils  of  all  kinds,  for  which 
purport  it  is  usually  alloyed  with  one  twenty-fourth  of  cop¬ 
per,  which  gives  it  a  greater  degree  of  hardness  and  cohe¬ 
rence,  without  rendering  it  in  the  least  noxious. 

The  most  considerable  Silver  mines  are,  at  Potosi  in  South 
America,  Kunsberg  in  Norway,  Annaberg  in  Austria,  the 
Hartz,  Saxony  in  general,  Schemnitz,  in  Hungary,  &c. 

SIMILOR;  see  Copper . 


SKINS,  FELLS. 


F.  Peaux. 

G.  Felle. 
D.  Vellen. 
I.  Belli. 

S.  Pieles . 


P.  P tiles. 

DA.  Skind,  Huder. 
SW,  Skinn. 

POL.  Skory. 

R .  Koshu. 


Skin  is  the  membrane  stripped  off  the  animal  to  be  prepared 
by  the  tanner  and  others,  and  converted  into  leather,  &c. 

The  different  sorts  of  skins  brought  from  North  America 
for  the  use  of  the  furrier,  are  enumerated  under  the  article 
furs,  the  stag  and  roebuck  excepted. 

Kid  and  lamb  Skins  come  from  Italy  and  Spain,  they  ought 
to  be  very  large  and  free  of  blemish,  an-d  require  to  be  very 
carefully  examined  by  the  purchaser. 


310 


Goat  Skins  serve  for  ^morocco  leather,  and  sometimes  for 
parchment,  by  which  the  real  chamoisis  is  frequently  counter¬ 
feited.  The  Goats  of  Barbary  and  the  Indies  are  esteemed 
the  most  beautiful  of  any  called  common  goats.  Goat  Skins 
are  chiefly  imported  into  England  from  Switzerland,  Ger¬ 
many,  Spain,  &c. 

SLATE. 


F.  Ardoise . 

G.  S chief er . 

D.  Arduin . 

I.  Lavagna,  Lastra. 
S.  P izarra. 

P.  Picarra ,  Ardoisa. 


DA.  Skifer. 

SW.  Skifver. 

POL.  Lupny  kamien. 

R.  Tesannoi  kamen ,  Tscherc- 
piza. 

L.  Schistus  Ardesia. 


Slate  is  a  stone  of  a  compact  texture,  and  laminated  struc¬ 
ture,  splitting  into  fine  plates. 

There  are  four  species  of  Slate. 

First;  The  whitish  Slate ,  being  a  soft  friable  stone,  of  a  to¬ 
lerable  fine  and  close  texture,  considerably  heavy,  perfectly 
dull  and  destitute  of  brightness,  variegated  with  a  pale  brown 
or  brownish  yellow.  This  species  is  common  in  many  coun¬ 
ties  of  England,  lying  near  the  surface  of  the  ground.  It  is 
commonly  used  for  covering  houses. 

Secondly;  The  red  Slate ,  is  of  a  very  fine,  elegant,  and 
smooth  surface,  considerably  heavy,  and  of  a  very  beautiful 
pale  purple,  glittering  all  over  with  small  glossy  spangles. 
This  kind  of  Slate  is  very  common  in  the  North  of  England, 
and  is  much  valued  as  a  strong  and  beautiful  covering  for 
houses. 

Thirdly;  The  common  blue  Slate ,  is  of  a  fine  smooth  texture 
and  glossy  surface,  moderately  heavy,  and  of  a  pale  greyish 
blue.  This  is  also  very  common  in  the  northern  parts  of  Eng¬ 
land,  and  is  used  in  most  places  for  the  covering  of  houses. 

Fourthly;  The  friable,  aluminous,  black  Slate ,  being  the 
Irish  Slate  of  the  shops.  It  is  common  in  many  parts  of  Ire¬ 
land,  and  is  also  found  in  some  places  in  England. 

The  island  of  Eusdale,  one  of  the  Hebrides,  on  the  w$st 
coast  of  Scotland,  is  entirely  composed  of  Slate.  The  stra¬ 
tum  is  thirty-six  feet  thick.  About  two  millions  and  a  half 
of  Slates,  at  the  rate  of  twenty  shillings  per  thousand,  are 
sold  annually  to  England,  Canada,  the  West  Indies,  and 
Norway. 

Considerable  quantities  of  coarse  Slates  are  found  in  many 
parts  of  Wales,  particularly  in  a  quarry  near  Llangynnog,  ip 


Sll 

North  Wales,  which  from  November  1775  to  November 
1776,  yielded  904,000  Slates,  sold  from  six  to  twenty  shil¬ 
lings  per  thousand.  Port  Penrhyn,  half  a  mile  from  Bangor, 
is  the  grand  repository  of  the  Slate  procured  from  Lord 
Penrhyn’s  quarries  at  Dolawen. 

SMALL  NUTS,  hazel  nuts. 


F.  Noisettes ,  Adelines. 

G.  Haseln'usse . 

D.  Hazelnooten . 

I.  Nocciuole,  A^vellane. 
S.  Avellanas. 

P.  A<vellaas. 


DA.  Hassel  nodder. 

SW.  Hasselnotter. 

POL.  Laskowy,  orzech. 
R.  Ore  chi. 

L.  Avellanas. 


These  nuts  are  more  nourishing  than  walnuts,  but  also 
harder  to  digest.  To  come  to  perfection  they  require  a 
dry  season,  and  much  rain  will  destroy  them.  Hence  con¬ 
siderable  quantities,  and  species  superior  to  ours,  are  brought 
annually  from  Barcelona  in  Spain,  from  Sicily,  and  Naples. 
In  the  latter  kingdom,  the  district  of  Avellino  is  almost 
covered  with  Hazelnut  bushes,  which  in  good  years  bring  in 
a  profit  of  sixty  thousand  ducats.  These  bushes  were  origi¬ 
nally  imported  into  Italy  from  Pontus,  and  known  among  the 
Romans  by  the  appellation  of  nux  Pontica,  which  in  process 
of  time  was  changed  into  that  of  nux  Avellana,  from  the 
place  where  they  had  been  propagated  with  the  greatest  suc¬ 
cess.  The  proprietors  plant  them  in  rows,  and  by  dres¬ 
sing  form  them  into  large  bushes  of  many  stems.  Every 
year  they  refresh  the  roots  with  new  earth,  and  prune  off 
the  straggling  shoots  with  much  attention. 


SMALTS. 


F.  Azur  d'Hollande . 

G.  Smalte  Blaussel . 

D.  Smalt. 

I.  Smal/o  azzuro,  Smaltino. 
S.  E smalte,  Azul  de  Azur. 
P.  E smalte. 


DA.  Smalt . 
SW.  Smalt. 
POL.  Lazur. 
R.  Las  or. 

L.  Smalt  urn. 


Zafer  is  an  impure  grey  calx  of  cobalt,  which  is  prepared, 
by  first  roasting  and  freeing  the  cobalt  from  all  foreign  bo¬ 
dies  ;  after  which  it  is  well  calcined  and  sometimes  mixed 
with  fine  sand. 

Zaffer  if  mixed  with  siliceous  earth  and  potashes,  and  ex¬ 
posed  to  a  strong  fire,  melts  into  a  kind  of  blue  glass,  called 


312 


Smalts,  which  when  ground  very  fine,  obtains  the  denomina¬ 
tion  of  powder  blue. 

Smalts  are  a  most  durable  pigment,  which  perfe£lly  with-  ' 
stands  the  fire,  and  is  fit  to  produce  every  shade  of  blue.  It 
is  therefore  employed  in  preference  to  any  other  colour  far 
tinging  crystals,  and  for  enamelling;  for  counterfeiting  opake 
and  transparent  precious  stones,  and  for  painting  and  var¬ 
nishing  real  porcelain,  earthen  and  potters  ware.  The  blue 
colour  of  this  pigment  inclines  much  to  that  of  ultramarine, 
and  in  want  of  the  latter  article,  or  when  too  costly,  it  is 
indispensably  necessary  to  the  painter,  for  imitating  the  fine 
azure  colour.  The  cheaper  kind  is  employed  to  give  a  biue- 
ish  tinge  to  new  washed  linen,  though  not  without  injury  to 
the  health,  as  well  as  to  the  linen. 

The  preparation  of  this  new  colour  may  be  reckoned 
among  the  most  beneficial  inventions  of  modern  times.  The 
principal  reason  why  many  authors  think  that  the  Ancients 
used  Smalts,  is,  that  various  antiquities  both  of  painting  and 
enamel  have  been  discovered,  in  which  a  blue  appears,  that 
gives  ground  for  conj enuring  it  was  produced  by  cobalt; 
particularly  blue  enamelled  figures  of  Egyptian  deities,  the 
blue  squares  in  mosaic  work,  likewise  the  fine  blue  colour 
that  the  Chinese  and  people  of  Japan  gave  to  their  porce¬ 
lain,  and  the  blue  also  seen  on  mummies,  which  even  after 
so  many  centuries,  seems  to  have  lost  little  or  nothing  of 
its  beauty.  But  it  has  been  proved  by  chemical  experiments, 
that  it  is  not  only  possible  to  give  to  glass  and  enamel  a  blue 
colour  by  means  of  iron,  but  that  the  before  mentioned  an¬ 
tiquities  shew  not  the  smallest  traces  of  cobalt. 

About  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  cobalt  seems  to 
have  been  dug  up  in  great  quantities  in  the  mines  on  the 
borders  of  Saxony  and  Bohemia.  The  invention  of  making 
an  useful  blue  glass  from  cobalt  seems  to  fall  about  the  period 
of  1540  and  1560.  Christopher  Schurer,  a  glass  maker  at 
Platten  in  Bohemia,  is  said  to  be  the  inventor  of  the  art.  As 
painting  in  glass  was  then  much  cultivated  in  Holland,  eight 
colour  mills  were  soon  erCdted  there,  for  which  the  cobalt 
was  brought  from  Schneeberg,  around  which  place  colour 
mills  were  afterwards  also  ere&ed.  At  present  the  manufac¬ 
ture  of  Smalts  is  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Dutch, 
who  grind  the  German  cobalt  to  great  advantage. 

Azure ,  among  painters,  is  an  expression  which  at  present 
signifies,  in  general,  a  fine  blue  colour,  but  was  formerly 
applied  to  lapis  lazuli,  cailed  azure  stone,  and  to  the  blue 
prepared  from  it,  now  called  ultramarine.  But  since  a  blue 


313 


has  been  extracted  from  cobalt,  custom  has  applied  to  it  the 
name  of  azure,  although  it  differs  considerably  from  the 
former,  and  is  incapable  of  being  used  for  the  same  pur¬ 
pose,  and  particularly  for  painting  in  oil.  The  name  of  azure 
is  generally  applied  to  the  blue  glass  made  from  the  earth  of 
cobalt  and  verifiable  matters.  This  glass,  which  is  called 
Smalts  when  in  masses,  is  called  azure  only  when  reduced 
to  a  fine  powder.  Several  kinds  of  azure  are  distinguished, 
according  to  its  degree  of  beauty,  by  the  names  of  fine  azure, 
powdered  azure,  and  azure  of  four  fires.  In  general,  the 
more  intense  the  colour,  and  the  finer  the  powder,  the  more 
beautiful  and  dear  it  is. 


SNAKE  ROOT. 


F.  Contrayerva . 

G.  Amerikaniscbet  oder  Peru- 
anische  Giftavurzel. 

D .  Giftvuortel. 

1.  Contra-erba. 


S.  Contra-yerla. 

P.  Contrarer'va. 

DA  Gif  trod. 

SW.  Gif  trot. 

L.  Contrayer<va>  Serpent  aria  % 


There  are  several  species  of  this  root  all  supposed  to  be 
counter  poisons. 

The  Virginian  Snake  root  has  its  leaves  green  and  large, 
almost  in  figure  of  a  heart;  it$  fruit  round;  and  its  root  which 
is  of  a  very  strong  aromatic  smell,  has  at  the  bottom  an  in¬ 
finite  number  of  long,  small  filaments,  representing  a  kind 
of  beard.  It  was  first  brought  into  Europe  by  the  English 
from  Virginia,  where  it  is  esteemed  a  sovereign  remedy 
against  the  bite  of  the  rattle  snake. 

SOAP,  sope. 


F,  Savon. 

G.  Seife. 
D.  Zeep. 
I.  Sapone . 
S.  Jubon, 
P.  Sabao. 


DA.  Sale . 

SW.  A'val,  Grune  Sap  a. 
POL  Mydlo. 

R.  Miilo. 

L.  Sapo. 


Soap  is  an  unctuous  kind  of  paste  made  with  oil  or  other 
kinds  of  fat,  and  an  alkali,  sometimes  actuated  with  quick¬ 
lime.  It  is  sometimes  hard  and  dry,  and  sometimes  soft 
and  liquid.  The  principal  Soaps  of  our  manufacture  consist 
of  an  intimate  union  of  the  salt  of  potash  with  oil  or  animal 
fat.  The  common  coarse  Soaps  are  made  with  tallow;  the 
R  r 


314- 


soft,  blackish,  and  greenish  sorts  with  train  oil;  and  the 
fine  hard  white  Soaps  with  olive  oil,  and  an  alkali  a&uated 
with  quick  lime,  which  promotes  the  action  of  the  salt  upon 
the  oil,  and  at  the  same  time  disposes  the  Soap  to  a  hard  and 
dry  consistence,  which  it  does  not  easily  assume  when  made 
with  plain  alkali.  A  quantity  of  common  salt  is  generally 
added  in  the  process,  the  use  of  which  is,  when  the  oil  has 
been  incorporated  by  boiling  with  the  alkaline  salt  of  the  ley, 
to  promote  the  separation  of  the  saponaceous  concrete  from 
the  water. 

The  greatest  quantities  of  Soap  are  made  in  Spain,  Portu¬ 
gal,  France,  and  Italy  ;  olive  oil  being  in  those  countries 
most  plentiful. 


SODA;  see  Barilla . 
SPANISH  JUICE;  see  Liquorice . 
SPELTER;  see  Zinc . 


SPERMACETI. 


F.  Blanc  de  haleinc ,  Sperme 
de  Baleine , 

G.  IVallratb. 

D.  IV ah c hot. 

I.  Spermaceti . 

S.  Esperma  de  ballena,  Esper - 
tnaceti . 


P.  E  spermaceti. 

DA.  Hajalrav,  Hvalsperme. 
SW.  Vallrat,  V alraf. 

POL.  Spermaceti ,  Olbrod. 
R.  Spermazet. 

L.  Spermaceti . 


Spermaceti  is  a  whitish,  un&uous,  "flaky  substance,  pre¬ 
pared  from  the  oil,  but  chiefly  from  the  brains  of  a  species 
of  a  whale  called  physeter  macrocephalus. 

Good  Spermaceti  is  glossy  and  semi-transparent;  in  fine 
white  flakes;  soft  and  un£tuous  to  the  touch,  yet  dry  and 
friable;  in  taste  somewhat  like  butter;  and  of  a  faint  smell 
like  that  of  tallow.  It  is  apt  in  general  to  grow  yellowish, 
and  to  contradl  a  rancid  fishy  smell  if  not  carefully  secured 
from  the  air.  The  more  perfectly  it  has  been  purified  at  first 
the  less  susceptible  it  is  of  those  alterations,  and  after  it  has 
been- changed,  it  may  be  rendered  white  and  sweet  again,  by 
steeping  it  afresh  in  a  ley  of  alkaline  salt  and  quicklime.  It 
melts  in  a  small  degree  of  heat,  and  congeals  again  as  it 
cools. 


315 


Spermaceti  is  of  use  in  medicine,  though  chiefly  only  ex¬ 
ternally. 

Spermaceti  candles  are  of  modern  manufacture  :  they  are 
made  smooth,  with  a  fine  gloss,  free  from  rings  and  scars, 
superior  to  the  finest  wax  candles  in  colour  and  lustre;  and 
when  genuine  leave  no  spot  or  stain  on  the  finest  silk  cloth 
or  linen. 

In  the  transa&ions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  there 
is  a  treatise  on  the  conversion  of  animal  muscle,  into  a  sub¬ 
stance  much  resembling  Spermaceti.  It  appears  from  a  num¬ 
ber  of  experiments,  that  if  flesh  is  exposed  to  the  a&ion  of 
water  for  a  considerable  time  it  will  change  it  into  a  fatty 
substance;  which  discovery  might  be  applied  to  profit,  for 
making  grease  or  fat  for  many  purposes.  The  nitrous  acid 
greatly  accelerates  this  transformation,  and  takes  away  the 
offensive  putrefa&ive  smell.  By  submitting  it  to  the  a£tion 
of  the  oxygenated  muriatic  acid,  the  fermentation  goes  on 
more  slowly,  but  it  may  be  procured  quite  white  and  pure. 

SPIRIT  OF  WINE;  see  Brandy. 

SPRUCE  BEER 

Is  a  cheap  and  wholesome  liquor  said  to  be  thus  made. 
Take  of  water  sixteen  gallons,  and  boil  the  half  of  it.  Put 
the  boiled  water,  while  in  full  heat,  to  the  reserved  cold 
part,  which  should  be  previously  put  into  a  barrel;  then  add 
sixteen  pounds  of  treacle  or  melasses,  with  a  few  table  spoons¬ 
ful  of  the  essence  of  Spruce,  stirring  the  whole  well  toge¬ 
ther;  add  half  a  pint  of  yeast,  and  keep  it  in  a  temperate 
situation,  with  the  bung  hole  open,  for  two  days,  till  the 
fermentation  be  abated.  Then  close  it  up  or  bottle  it  off, 
and  it  will  be  fit  for  being  drank  in  a  few  days  afterwards. 

The  essence  of  Spruce  is  extra&ed  from  the  small  twigs 
or  sprouts  of  the  black  and  white  Spruce  fir. 

The  Dantzig  Spruce  beer  is  reckoned  the  best;  the  taste 
of  the  American  Spruce  is  less  agreeable,  and  it  is  not  so 
nourishing. 


316 


SPUNGE. 


F.  Eponge. 

G.  Schramm,  Badeschwoamm* 
D.  Spongie,  Spans. 

1.  Spug/na,  Spungia . 

S.  Esponja. 

P.  Esponga. 


DA.  Swamp. 

SW.  Swamp. 

POL  Gebka . 

R .  Guba  grezkaja, 
L.  Spongia, 


Spunge  is  a  plant  of  very  irregular  figure,  generally  to  be 
met  with  in  shops  only  in  pieces.  Its  texture  is  cavernous 
and  porous;  its  great  elasticity,  and  its  property  of  imbibing, 
and  as  readily  parting  with  a  large  quantity  of  water,  render 
it  useful. 

Spunge  is  to  be  chosen  as  light  as  possible,  perfectly  clean 
and  free  from  stone,  of  as  pale  a  colour  as  may  be,  with  small 
holes,  and  fine  and  soft  to  the  touch. 

The  greatest  part  of  the  Spunge  we  use  is  brought  from 
Aleppo  and  Smyrna.  It  grows  in  the  Archipelago,  at  con¬ 
siderable  depths,  on  the  rocks  about  some  of  the  islands 
there,  and  multitudes  of  people  make  a  trade  of  diving  for 
it.  It  is  also  common  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  many  other 
seas,  though  in  general  browner  or  yellower,  and  not  so 
fine  as  that  of  the  Archipelago.  It  grows  in  large  masses  to 
rocks  and  stones,  sometimes  to  large  shells;  and  is  sometimes 
round,  sometimes  flat,  sometimes  hollow  like  a  funnel. 


SOUILL,  SEA  ONION. 


F.  Scille ,  Oignon  mar  in. 

G.  Meerzwoiebel. 

D.  Zeeajuin ,  Squille. 

1.  Scilla ,  Cipolla  marina. 
S.  Cebolla  alburrana. 

P.  Cebola  alwarraa. 


DA.  Ski  lie,  Strandlogrod. 
SW.  Skilla ,  Hajslok. 
POL.  Cobula  zamorska . 
R.  Luk  morskii. 

L.  Scilla ,  Squill  a. 


The  Squill  is  a  plant  with  a  large,  bulbous,  onion-like, 
root:  from  which  rise,  first  a  naked  stalk,  bearing  seve¬ 
ral  hexapetalous  white  flowers,  and  afterwards  large  green 
lily  like  leaves,  with  a  remarkable  rib  in  the  middle  of 
each.  It  grows  spontaneously  on  sandy  shores,  in  Spain, 
and  in  the  Levant,  from  whence  we  are  annually  supplied 
with  the  roots.  They  should  be  chosen  large,  plump,  fresh, 
and  full  of  a  clammy  juice:  some  are  of  a  reddish  colour, 


317 


and  others  white;  but  no  difference  is  observed  in  the  qua¬ 
lity  of  the  two  sorts.  This  root  is  to  the  taste  very  nauseous, 
intensely  bitter  and  acrimonious;  much  handled,  it  ulcerates 
the  skin.  Taken  internally  it  serves  as  a  powerful  attenuant 
and  aperient. 

STARCH. 


F.  Amidon. 

G.  Amid  am. 

D.  Amy  don,  Ameldonk. 
1.  Ami  do,  Amite. 

S.  Amidon,  Almidon. 
P.  Ami  do. 


DA.  Amdant . 
SW.  Siarkelse . 
POL.  Krochmal, 
R  Kruchmal. 

L.  Amylutn. 


Starch  is  the  sediment  found  at  the  bottom  of  vessels  where¬ 
in  wheat  has  been  steeped  in  water;  of  this  fecula,  after 
the  bran  is  separated  from  it,  by  passing  through  sieves, 
they  form  a  kind  of  loaves,  which  being  dried  in  the  sun,  or 
an  oven,  are  afterwards  broke  in  little  pieces,  and  so  sold  as 
starch. 

Starch  is  also  made  of  potatoes,  and  rice,  but  both  sorts 
are  reckoned  injurious  to  linen. 

The  best  Starch  comes  from  Poland. 


STICK  LAC;  see  Lac. 


STONE  COAL;  see  Pitcoal. 


STORAX. 


F.  Styrax,  Storax. 

G.  Storax. 

D.  Styrax,  Storax. 

L  Star  ace 
S.  Estoraque. 

P.  Estoraque ,  Sioraque. 


D  A .  Storax. 
SW  Storax. 
POL.  Styrax 
R.  Stir  ax. 

L.  Styrax. 


Storax  is  a  resinous  drug,  which  issues  in  a  fluid  state, 
from  incisions  made  in  the  trunk  or  branches  of  the  sty¬ 
rax  officinale,  or  Storax  tree.  Two  sorts  of  this  resin 
have  been  commonly  distinguished,  the  Storax  in  the  tear, 
and  the  common  Storax. 

The  Storax  in  the  tear  is  scarcely,  if  ever,  found  in  sepa- 
parate  tears,  but  in  masses,  sometimes  composed  of  whitish, 
and  pale  reddish  brown  tears,  and  sometimes  of  an  uniform 


318 


reddish  yellow,  or  brownish  appearance*,  un&uous  and  soft 
like  wax,  and  free  from  visible  impurities.  This  is  supposed 
to  be  the  sort  which  the  Ancients  received  from  Pamphylia 
in  reeds  or  canes,  and  which  was  thence  named  calamita. 

The  common  Storax  is  in  large  masses,  considerably  light¬ 
er  and  less  compadt  than  the  former,  and  having  a  large  ad¬ 
mixture  of  woody  matter,  like  sawdust.  Indeed  there  is 
scarcely  any  other  than  this  impure  Storax  to  be  met  with  in 
trade. 

This  odoriferous  drug,  though  formerly  a  familiar  remedy 
as  a  resolvent,  has  now  no  place  in  any  of  the  officinal  com¬ 
pounds,  and  its  use  seems  to  be  limited  to  that  of  an  incense. 


SUGAR. 


F.  Sucre. 

G.  Z ucker. 
D.  Suiker . 
I.  Zuccaro. 
8.  Azucar. 
P,  Aisucar . 


DA.  Suker. 
SW.  Socker. 
POL.  Cukier. 
R.  Sachar. 

L.  Saccharum. 


Sugar  is  a  solid  sweet  substance  obtained  from  the  Sugar 
cane;  or  according  to  chemists,  an  essential  salt,  capable  of 
crystallization;  of  a  sweet  and  agreeable  flavour,  and  con¬ 
tained  in  a  greater  or  smaller  quantity,  in  almost  every  spe¬ 
cies  of  vegetables,  but  most  abundant  in  the  Sugar  cane. 
Sugar  is  of  the  same  nature  as  honey;  it  yields  the  same 
principles;  it  is  a  native  vegetable  soap,  containing  an  oil 
miscible  with  water,  by  means  of  a  salino-acid  substance. 

As  the  Sugar  cane  is  the  principal  production  of  the  West 
Indies,  and  the  great  source  of  their  riches,  it  may  justly  be 
esteemed  one  of  the  most  valuable  plants  in  the  world.  The 
quantity  consumed  in  Europe  is  estimated  at  nine  millions 
sterling,  and  the  demand  would  probably  be  greater  if  it 
could  be  sold  at  a  reduced  price. 

From  the  few  remains  of  the  Grecian  and  Roman  authors 
which  have  survived  the  ravages  of  time,  we  can  find  no 
proofs  that  the  juice  of  the  Sugar  cane  was  known  at  a  very 
early  period.  There  can  be  no  doubt  however,  that  in  those 
countries  where  it  was  indigenous,  its  value  was  not  long 
concealed.  It  is  not  improbable,  that  it  was  known  to  the 
ancient  Jews;  for  there  is  some  reason  to  suppose,  that  the 
Hebrew  word,  which  by  our  translators  sometimes  is  render- 


319 


cd  calamus,  and  sometimes  sweet- cane  does  in  fa&  mean  the 
Sugar  cane. 

The  Sugar  cane  was  first  made  known  to  the  western  parts 
of  the  world  by  the  conquests  of  Alexander  the  Great. 
Strabo  relates,  that  Nearchus,  his  admiral,  found  it  in  the 
East  Indies,  in  the  year  before  Christ  325.  It  is  evidently 
alluded  to  in  a  fragment  of  Theophrastus,  preserved  in  Pho- 
tius.  Varro  who  lived  A.  D.  68,  describes  it  in  a  fragment 
quoted  by  Isidorus,  as  a  fluid  pressed  from  reeds  of  a  large 
size,  which  was  sweeter  than  honey.  Dioscorides,  about 
the  year  35  before  Christ,  says:  “  There  is  a  kind  of  honey 
«  called  saccharon,  which  is  found  in  India  and  Arabia  Fe- 
«  lix.  It  has  the  appearance  of  salt,  and  is  brittle  when 
«  chewed.  If  dissolved  in  water,  it  is  beneficial  to  the 
“  bowels  and  stomach,  useful  in  diseases  of  the  bladder 
«  and  kidneys,  and  when  sprinkled  on  the  eye,  removes 
“  those  substances,  that  obscure  the  sight.”  k  This  is  the  first 
account  we  have  of  its  medical  qualities.  Galen  often  pre¬ 
scribed  it  as  a  medicine.  Lucan  relates,  that  an  oriental  na¬ 
tion  in  alliance  with  Pompey,  used  the  juice  of  the  cane  as  a 
common  drink.  Pliny  says,  it  was  produced  in  Arabia  and 
India,  but  that  the  best  came  from  the  latter  country.  It  is 
also  mentioned  by  Arrian,  in  his  Periplus  of  the  Red  Sea, 
by  the  name  of  sachar,  as  an  article  of  commerce  from  In¬ 
dia  to  the  Red  Sea.  Aelian,  Tertullian,  and  Alexander 
Aphrodisseus,  mention  it  as  a  species  of  honey  procured 
from  canes. 

That  the  Sugar  cane  is  an  indigenous  plant  in  some  parts 
of  the  East  Indies  we  have  the  strongest  reason  to  believe: 
for  Thunberg  found  it  in  Japan,  and  has  accordingly  men¬ 
tioned  it  as  a  native  of  that  country,  in  his  Flora  Japonica, 
published  in  1784*.  Osbeck  also  found  it  in  China  in  1751. 
It  may  indeed  have  been  transplanted  from  some  other  coun¬ 
try,  but  as  it  does  not  appear  from  history  that  the  inhabi¬ 
tants  of  China  or  Japan  ever  carried  on  any  commerce  with 
remote  nations,  it  could  only  be  conveyed  from  some  neigh¬ 
bouring  country.  Marco  Polo,  a  noble  Venetian,  who  tra¬ 
velled  in  the  East  about  the  year  1250,  found  Sugar  in  abun¬ 
dance  in  Bengal. 

Vasco  de  Gama,  who  doubled  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
in  14?97,  relates,  that  a  considerable  trade  in  Sugar  was 
carried  on  in  the  Kingdom  of  Calicut.  On  the  autho¬ 
rity  of  Dioscorides,  and  Pliny  too,  we  should  be  disposed  to 
admit,  that  it  is  a  native  of  Arabia,  did  we  not  find,  on 
consulting  Niebuhr's  travels,  that  this  botanist  has  omitted 


320 


it,  when  enumerating  the  most  valuable  plants  of  that  coun¬ 
try.  If  it  be  a  spontaneous  production  of  Arabia,  it  must 
still  flourish  in  its  native  soil.  Bruce  found  it  in  Upper 
Egypt.  If  we  may  believe  the  relation  of  Giovan  Lioni,  a 
considerable  trade  was  carried  on  in  Sugar  in  Nubia,  in 
1500:  it  abounded  also  at  Thebes,  on  the  Nile,  and  in  the 
northern  parts  of  Africa,  about  the  same  period. 

There  is  reason  to  believe,  that  the  Sugar  cane  was  intro¬ 
duced  into  Europe  during  the  crusades ;  expeditions,  which 
however  romantic  in  their  plan,  and  unsuccessful  in  their  ex¬ 
ecution,  were  certainly  productive  of  many  advantages  to 
the  nations  of  Europe.  Albertus  Aquensis,  a  monkish  wri¬ 
ter,  observes,  thas  the  Christian  soldiers  in  the  Holy  Land, 
frequently  derived  refreshment  and  support,  during  a  scar¬ 
city  of  provisions,  by  sucking  the  canes.  This  plant  flou¬ 
rished  also  in  the  Morea,  and  in  the  islands  of  Rhodes  and 
Malta;  from  which  it  was  transported  into  Sicily.  The  date 
of  this  transaction  is  not  easily  ascertained,  but  we  are  sure, 
that  Sugar  was  cultivated  in  that  island  previous  to  the  year 
1166;  for  Lafitau  the  Jesuit,  who  wrote  a  history  of  the 
Portuguese  discoveries,  mentions  a  donation  made  that  year 
to  the  monastery  of  St.  Bennet,  by  William  the  Second, 
king  of  Sicily,  of  a  mill  for  grinding  Sugar  canes,  with  all 
its  rights,  members  and  appurtenances. 

The  quantity  of  Sugar  canes  now  cultivated  in  Sicily  is 
very  inconsiderable,  and  Sicilian  Sugar  is  quite  a  rarity.  It 
is  of  good  colour  and  quality,  but  from  want  of  encourage¬ 
ment  or  industry,  is  almost  entirely  supplanted  by  foreign 
Sugars.  This  culture,  is  in  its  greatest  vigour  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  Vaidinoto,  but  might  be  extended  to  advantage  in 
many  other  districts.  The  canes  grow  to  a  fine  size,  and  are 
very  juicy,  thrive  almost  without  care,  have  heat  and  mois¬ 
ture  enough,  and  neither  hurricanes  nor  inseCts  to  appre¬ 
hend;  labour  is  dear  and  hands  scarce,  but  certainly  not  so 
much  as  to  prevent  the  Sicilians  from  underselling  foreigners, 
at  their  own  market  at  least. 

There  is  even  Sugar  produced  in  Egypt,  the  canes  grow¬ 
ing  in  Upper  Egypt;  but  it  is  so  ill  prepared,  that  they  can¬ 
not  sell  it  so  cheap  as  the  American  Sugars. 

From  Sicily  the  Sugar  cane  was  conveyed  to  Spain,  Ma¬ 
deira,  the  Canary,  and  Cape  de  Verd  islands,  soon  after 
they  were  discovered  in  the  fifteenth  century. 

An  opinion  has  prevailed,  that  the  Sugar  cane  is  not  a 
native  of  the  western  continent,  or  its  adjacent  islands  the 
West  Indies,  but  was  conveyed  thither  by  the  Spaniards 


32 1 


or  Portuguese,  soon  after  the  discovery  of  America  by  Co¬ 
lumbus.  From  the  testimony  of  Peter  Martyr,  in  the  third 
book  of  his  first  decade,  composed  during  Columbus’s  second 
voyage,  which  commenced  in  1493  and  ended  in  1495,  it 
appears,  that  the  Sugar  cane  was  known  at  that  time  in  Hi¬ 
spaniola.  It  may  be  said  that  it  was  brought  thither  by  Co¬ 
lumbus*,  but  for  this  assertion  we  have  found  no  direct 
evidence,  and  though  w£  had  direct  evidence,  this  would 
not  prove  that  the  Sugar  cane  was  not  an  indigenous  plant 
of  the  West  Indies.  There  are  authors  of  learning,  who 
after  investigating  this  subject  with  attention,  do  not  hesitate 
to  maintain,  that  it  is  a  native  both  of  the  islands  and  of  the 
continent  of  America. 

The  Sugar  cane,  or  saccharum  officinarum  of  botanists, 
is  a  jointed  reed,  commonly  measuring,  the  flag  part  not 
included,  from  three  feet  and  a  half  to  seven  feet  in  height, 
but  sometimes  rising  to  twelve  feet.  When  ripe  it  is  of  a 
fine  straw  colour  inclining  to  yellow,  producing  leaves  or 
blades,  the  edges  of  which  are  finely  and  sharply  serrated, 
and  terminating  in  an  arrow,  decorated  with  a  panicle.  The 
joints  in  one  stalk  are  from  forty  to  sixty  in  number,  and 
the  stalks  rising  from  one  root  are  sometimes  very  numerous. 
The  young  root  ascends  from  the  earth  like  the  point  of  an 
arrow,  the  shaft  of  which  soon  breaks,  and  the  two  first 
leaves,  which  had  been  inclosed  within  a  quadruple  sheath 
of  seminal  leaves,  rise  to  a  considerable  height. 

As  the  cane  is  a  rank  succulent  plant  it  must  require  a 
strong  deep  soil  to  bring  it  to  perfection,  perhaps  indeed  no 
soil  can  be  too  rich  for  this  purpose.  The  soil  which  ex¬ 
perience  has  found  to  be  the  most  favourable  to  the  cultiva¬ 
tion  of  it  in  the  West  Indies,  is  the  dark  grey  loam  of  St. 
Christopher’s,  which  is  so  light  and  porous,  as  to  be  pene¬ 
trable  by  the  slightest  application  of  the  hoe.  The  under 
stratum  is  gravel  from  eight  to  twelve  inches  deep.  Canes 
planted  in  particular  spots  in  this  island,  have  been  known 
to  yield  eight  thousand  pounds  of  muscovado  sugar  from  a 
single  acre.  The  average  produce  of  the  island,  for  a  series 
of  years,  has  been  sixteen  thousand  hogsheads  of  sixteen 
cwt.  which  is  one  half  only  of  the  whole  cane  land,  or  eight 
thousand  five  hundred  acres.  When  annually  cut,  it  gives 
nearly  two  hogsheads  of  sixteen  cwt.  per  acre,  for  the  whole 
of  the  land  in  ripe  canes.  Next  to  the  ashy  loam  of  St. 
Christopher’s  is  the  soil  which  in  Jamaica  is  called  brick 
mould,  containing  a  mixture  of  clay  and  sand.  After  this 


322 


may  be  reckoned  the  deep  black  mould  of  Barbadoes,  Antigua, 
and  some  other  of  the  windward  islands. 

As  the  cane  requires  a  great  deal  of  moisture  to  bring  it 
to  maturity,  the  most  proper  season  for  planting  it  is  in  the 
months  of  September  and  O&ober,  when  the  autumnal  rains 
begin,  that  it  may  be  sufficiently  luxuriant  to  shade  the 
ground  when  the  dry  weather  sets  in.  A  January  plant 
commonly  turns  out  well  likewise. 

The  Sugar  cane  is  propagated  by  the  top  shoots,  which 
are  cut  from  the  tops  of  the  old  canes.  Two  of  them  are 
sufficient  for  a  cane  hole.  These,  being  placed  longitudi¬ 
nally  in  the  bottom  of  the  hole,  are  covered  with  mould 
about  two  inches  deep;  and  in  about  twelve  or  fourteen  days 
the  young  sprouts  begin  to  appear. 

In  most  parts  of  the  West  Indies  it  is  usual  to  plant  only 
a  certain  proportion  of  the  cane  land,  commonly  one  third, 
in  annual  rotation.  Canes  of  the  first  year’s  growth  are 
called  plant  canes.  The  sprouts  that  spring  from  the  roots 
of  canes  which  have  been  previously  cut  for  Sugar,  are 
called  ratoons;  the  first  yearly  returns  from  their  roots 
are  called  first  ratoons;  the  second  year’s  growth  second 
ratoons. 

The  Sugar  cane  is  liable  to  be  destroyed  by  monkeys,  rats, 
and  mice.  The  upland  plantations  suffer  greatly  from  mon¬ 
keys,  and  the  lowland  plantations  as  much  by  rats,  and  mice. 
The  Sugar  cane  is  also  subject  to  a  disease  called  the  blast; 
the  fine,  broad,  green  blades,  then  become  sickly,  dry,  and 
withered;  soon  after  they  appear  stained  in  spots,  and  if 
these  spots  are  carefully  examined,  they  will  be  found  to 
contain  innumerable  eggs  of  an  insert,  like  a  bug,  which  are 
soon  quickened  and  cover  the  plants  with  vermin.  The  juice 
of  the  canes  thus  affe&ed  becomes  sour,  and  no  future  shoot 
issues  from  the  joints. 

The  crops  of  Sugar  canes  do  not  ripen  precisely  at  the 
same  period  in  all  the  colonies.  In  the  Danish,  Spanish,  and 
Dutch  settlements,  they  begin  in  January  and  continue  till 
October.  This  method  does  not  imply  any  fixed  season  for 
the  maturity  of  the  Sugar  cane.  The  plant,  however,  like 
others,  must  have  its  progress;  and  it  must  necessarily  fol¬ 
low,  from  the  custom  these  nations  have  adopted,  of  con¬ 
tinuing  t)  gather  their  crops  for  ten  months  without  inter¬ 
mission,  that  they  cut  some  canes  which  are  not  ripe  enough, 
and  others  that  are  too  ripe,  and  then  the  fruit  has  not 
the  requisite  qualities.  The  time  of  gathering  them  should 
be  at  a  fixed  period,  and  probably  the  months  of  March 


323 


and  April,  when  the  English  cut  their  canes,  are  the  fittest 
for  it ;  because  all  the  sweet  fruits  are  ripe  at  that  time, 
while  the  sour  ones  do  not  arrive  to  a  state  of  maturity  till 
the  months  of  July  and  August.  The  English,  however, 
are  not  induced  to  do  so  on  account  of  the  ripeness  of  the 
cane.  The  drought  that  prevails  in  their  islands,  renders 
the  rains  which  fail  in  September  necessary  to  their  plant¬ 
ing;  and  as  the  canes  are  eighteen  months  in  growing, 
this  period  always  brings  them  to  the  precise  point  of  ma¬ 
turity. 

The  time  of  crop  in  the  Sugar  islands  is  the  season  of  glad¬ 
ness  and  festivity  to  man  and  beast.  So  palatable,  salutary, 
and  nourishing,  is  the  juice  of  the  cane,  that  every  indivi¬ 
dual  of  the  animal  creation,  drinking  freely  of  it,  derives 
health  and  vigour  from  its  use.  The  meagre  and  sickly 
among  the  negroes,  exhibit  a  surprising  alteration  in  a  few 
weeks  after  the  mill  is  set  in  a&ion.  The  labouring  horses, 
oxen,  and  mules,  though  almost  constantly  at  work  during 
this  season,  yet,  being  indulged  with  plenty  of  the  green 
tops  of  this  noble  plant,  and  some  of  the  scummings  from 
the  boiling  house,  improve  more,  than  at  any  other  period 
of  the  year.  Even  the  pigs  and  poultry  fatten  on  the 
refuse. 

The  plants  being  cut,  the  branches  at  the  top  are  given 
to  the  cattle  for  food;  the  top  shoot,  which  is  full  of  eyes, 
is  preserved  for  planting.  The  canes  are  cut  into  pieces 
about  a  yard  long,  tied  up  in  bundles,  and  carried  in  carts 
to  the  mill,  where  they  are  bruised,  and  the  juice  pressed 
out  of  them,  which  is  received  in  a  leaden  bed,  and  thence 
conveyed  into  a  vessel  called  the  receiver.  The  refuse,  or 
macerated  rind  of  the  cane,  called  cane  trash,  serves  for 
fuel  to  boil  the  liquor. 

The  juice,  as  it  flows  from  the  mill,  taken  at  a  medium, 
contains  eight  parts  of  pure  water,  one  part  of  Sugar,  and 
one  part  consisting  of  coarse  oil  and  mucilaginous  gum,  with 
a  portion  of  essential  oil. 

As  this  juice  has  a  strong  disposition  to  fermentation,  it 
must  be  boiled  as  soon  as  possible.  From  the  receivers  there¬ 
fore  it  is  led  into  the  boiling-house,  where  it  is  received  into 
one  of  the  clarifiers.  When  the  clarifier  is  filled,  a  fire  is 
lighted,  and  a  quantity  of  Bristol  quicklime  in  powder,  which 
is  called  temper,  is  poured  into  the  vessel.  The  use  of  the 
lime  is,  to  unite  the  superabundant  acid,  which  for  the 
success  of  the  process  it  is  necessary  to  get  rid  of.  The  heat 
then  is  suffered  gradually  to  increase,  till  it  approaches  within 


324 


a  few  degrees  of  the  heat  of  boiling  water,  that  the  impuri¬ 
ties  may  be  thoroughly  separated.  But  if  the  liquor  was 
suffered  to  boil  with  violence,  the  impurities  would  again 
incorporate  with  it.  It  is  known  to  be  sufficiently  heated 
when  the  scum  begins  to  rise  in  blisters  which  break  into 
white  froth.  The  fire  is  then  suddenly  extinguished  by 
means  of  a  damper,  and  the  liquor  is  allowed  to  remain  about 
an  hour  undisturbed,  during  which  time  the  impurities  are 
collected  in  scum  on  the  surface.  The  juice  is  then  conveyed 
from  the  clarifier  into  the  evaporating  boiler,  commonly 
termed  the  grand  copper.  The  scum  being  of  a  tenacious 
gummy  nature,  does  not  flow  out  with  the  liquor,  but  re¬ 
mains  behind  in  the  clarifier. 

If  the  juice  has  been  obtained  from  good  canes  it  generally 
appears  transparent  when  flowing  in  the  grand  copper.  Here 
the  liquor  is  allowed  to  boil,  and  as  the  scum  rises,  it  is 
taken  off.  The  scumming  and  evaporation  are  continued 
till  the  liquor  becomes  finer  and  thicker,  and  so  far  dimi¬ 
nished  in  bulk,  that  it  may  be  easily  contained  in  the  second 
copper.  When  put  into  the  second  copper  it  is  nearly  of 
the  colour  of  Madeira  wine;  the  boiling  and  scumming  are 
continued,  and  if  the  impurities  be  considerable,  a  quantity 
of  limewater  is  added.  This  process  is  carried  on,  till  the 
liquor  be  sufficiently  diminished  in  quantity  to  be  contained 
in  the  third  copper.  After  being  purified  a  third  time  it  is 
put  into  the  fourth  copper,  which  is  called  the  teache,  where 
it  is  boiled  and  evaporated,  till  it  is  judged  sufficiently  pure 
to  be  removed  from  the  fire.  To  judge  of  the  purity  of  the 
liquor,  many  of  the  negroes  Examine  the  appearance  of  the 
grain  on  the  back  of  the  ladle.  But  the  practice  most  in 
use,  is  to  judge  by  what  is  called  the  touch;  i.  e.  taking  up 
with  the  thumb  a  small  portion  of  the  hot  liquor  from  the 
ladle,  and  as  the  heat  diminishes,  drawing  with  the  forefinger 
the  liquid  into  a  thread.  This  thread  will  suddenly  break,, 
and  shrink  from  the  thumb  to  the  suspended  finger,  in  dif¬ 
ferent  lengths,  according  as  the  liquor  is  more  or  less  boiled. 
The  proper  boiling  length  for  strong  muscovado  Sugar,  is 
generally  determined  by  a  thread  of  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
long. 

The  juice  being  thus  purified  by  passing  through  the  cla¬ 
rifier  and  four  coppers,  it  is  poured  into  coolers,  which  are 
shallow  wooden  vessels.  As  the  liquor  cools,  the  Sugar  grains 
collefl  into  an  irregular  mass  of  imperfect  crystals,  separating 
from  the  melasses.  It  is  then  removed  from  the  cooler,  and 
conveyed  to  the  curing  house,  where  the  melasses  drain  from 


325 


it.  For  receiving  them  there  is  a  large  cistern,  the  sloping 
sides  of  which  are  lined  with  boards.  Directly  above  the 
cistern,  a  frame  of  joist-work  without  boarding  is  placed, 
on  which  empty  hogsheads  without  heads  are  ranged.  The 
bottoms  of  these  hogsheads  are  pierced  with  eight  or  ten 
holes,  in  each  of  which  the  stalk  of  a  plantain  leaf  is  fixed, 
so  as  to  projedl  six  or  eight  inches  below  the  joists,  and  rise 
a  little  above  the  top  of  the  hogshead.  The  hogsheads  feeing 
filled  with  the  contents  of  the  cooler,  consisting  of  Sugar 
and  melasses,  the  latter  being  liquid,  drain  through  the 
spungy  stalk,  and  drop  into  the  cistern.  After  the  melasses 
are  drained  off,  the  Sugar  becomes  dry  and  fair,  and  is  then 
called  muscovado  or  raw  Sugar. 

This  is  the  process  for  extracting  Sugar  generally  adopted 
in  the  West  India  islands,  according  to  the  latest  improve¬ 
ments.  It  will  not  be  disagreeable  now  to  learn,  by  what 
methods  the  French  make  their  clayed  Sugars,  purer  and 
whiter  than  our  muscovadoes.  A  quantity  of  Sugar  from 
the  cooler  is  put  into  conical  pans  or  earthen  pots,  called  by 
the  French  formes,  having  a  small  perforation  at  the  apex, 
which  is  kept  closed.  Each  pan,  reversed  on  its  apex,  is 
supported  in  another  earthen  vessel.  The  syrup  is  stirred 
together,  and  then  left  to  crystallize.  At  the  end  of  fifteen 
or  sixteen  hours,  the  hole  in  the  point  of  each  cone  is  opened, 
that  the  impure  syrup  may  run  out.  The  base  of  these  Sugar 
loaves  is  then  taken  out,  and  white  pulverized  Sugar  sub¬ 
stituted  in  its  stead;  which  being  well  pressed  down,  the 
whole  is  covered  with  clay  moistened  with  water.  This 
water  filters  through  the  mass,  carrying  the  Syrup  with  it, 
which  was  mixed  with  the  Sugar,  but  which  by  this  manage¬ 
ment  flows  in  a  pot  substituted  in  the  place  of  the  first.  This 
second  fluid  is  called  fine  syrup.  Care  is  taken  to  moisten, 
and  keep  the  clay  to  a  proper  degree  of  softness,  as  it  be¬ 
comes  dry.  The  Sugar  loaves  are  afterwards  taken  out,  and 
dried  in  a  stove  for  eight  or  ten  days,  after  which  they  are 
pulverized,  packed,  and  exported  to  Europe,  where  they 
are  still  further  purified.  The  reason  assigned  why  this 
process  is  not  universally  adopted  in  the  British  Sugar  islands, 
is  this,  that  the  water  which  dilutes,  and  carries  away  the 
melasses,  dissolves  and  carries  with  it  so  much  Sugar,  that 
the  difference  in  quality  does  not  pay  for  the  difference  in 
quantity.  The  French  planters  probably  think  otherwise. 
All  the  Sugar  coming  from  the  East  Indies  is  clayed,  and 
manufactured  in  a  similar  manner  to  that  in  the  French 
West  India  islands.  But  as  there  are  no  slaves,  the  Sugar 


326 


estates  in  the  East  are  conducted  in  a  very  different  and 
more  improved  manner,  from  what  they  are  in  the  West 
India  islands.  The  superintendant  of  a  Sugar  estate  agrees 
to  give  such  a  price  p.  pecul  to  any  set  of  tradesmen,  for 
cutting  all  his  crop  of  cane,  carrying  them  to  the  mill,  and 
grinding  them.  With  a  second  set  he  agrees,  to  boil  them 
•at  so  much  p.  pecul;  with  a  third  to  clay  them,  &c.  This, 
like  all  other  complex  arts,  by  being  divided  into  several 
branches,  renders  the  labour  cheaper  and  the  work  more 
perfectly  done. 

The  art  of  refining  Sugar  was  first  made  known  to  the 
Europeans  by  a  Venetian,  who  is  said  to  have  received  100,000 
crowns  for  the  invention.  This  discovery  was  made  before 
the  New  World  was  explored;  but  whether  it  was  an  in¬ 
vention  of  the  person  who  first  communicated  it,  or  whether 
it  was  conveyed  from  China,  where  it  had  been  known  for 
a  considerable  time  before,  cannot  now  perhaps  be  accurately 
ascertained.  We  find  no  mention  made  of  the  refining  of 
Sugar  in  Britain  till  the  year  1659,  though  it  probably  was 
practised  several  years  before.  For  in  the  Portuguese  island 
of  St.  Thomas,  in  1624,  there  were  seventy-four  Sugar  in- 
genios,  each  having  upwards  of  two  hundred  slaves. 

The  Sugar  which  undergoes  the  operation  of  refining  in 
Europe,  is  either  raw  Sugar,  sometimes  called  muscovado, 
or  it  is  clayed  Sugar.  The  raw  Sugar  generally  contains  a 
certain  quantity  of  melasses  as  well  as  earthy  and  feculent 
substances,  whereas  the  clayed  Sugar  is  freed  from  its  me¬ 
lasses.  The  first  process  which  Sugar  undergoes,  which  is 
to  be  refined,  is  called  clarification.  It  consists  in  dissolving 
the  Sugar  in  a  certain  proportion  of  lime-water,  adding  a 
proper  quantity  of  bullock’s  blood,  and  exposing  it  to  heat, 
in  order  to  remove  the  impurities. 

The  heat  is  increased  gradually  till  it  approaches  that  of 
boiling  water.  By  the  assistance  of  the  heat,  the  animal 
matter  which  was  thrown  in,  coagulates,  at  the  same  time 
that  it  attracts  all  the  solid,  feculent,  and  earthy  matter,  and 
raises  it  to  the  surface,  in  the  appearance  of  a  thick  foam  of 
a  brownish  colour;  when  they  are  skimmed  off.  As  the 
feculencies  are  never  entirely  removed  by  a  first  process,  a 
second  is  necessary;  and  the  same  operation  is  repeated  a 
third,  and  even  a  fourth  time;  but  in  the  two  latter  opera¬ 
tions,  no  addition  is  made  to  the  liquor,  except  water.  If 
the  different  processes  have  been  properly  conducted,  the 
solution  will  be  freed  from  every  impurity  and  appear  tran¬ 
sparent.  It  is  then  conveyed  into  an  oblong  basket,  about 


527 


sixteen  inches  deep,  lined  with  a  woollen  cloth;  and  after 
filtering  through  this  cloth,  it  is  received  in  a  cistern  or  cop¬ 
per,  which  is  placed  below. 

The  solution  being  thus  clarified,  it  undergoes  a  second 
general  operation,  called  evaporation.  Fire  is  applied  to  the 
copper  into  which  the  solution  was  received,  and  the  liquid  is 
boiled  till  it  has  acquired  the  proper  degree  of  consistency.  A 
judgment  is  formed  of  this  by  taking  up  a  small  portion  of  the 
liquid,  and  drawing  it  into  a  thread.  When  after  this  trial  it 
is  found  sufficiently  viscous,  the  fire  is  extinguished,  and  the 
liquid  poured  into  coolers.  It  is  then  stirred  violently  by  an 
intrument  called  an  oar.  This  is  done  in  order  to  diminish 
the  viscosity,  and  promote  the  granulation.  When  the  liquid 
is  properly  mixed  and  cooled,  it  is  then  poured  into  moulds 
of  the  form  of  a  Sugar  loaf.  The  small  ends,  which  are 
lowest,  are  placed  in  pots;  and  they  have  each  of  them  aper¬ 
tures  stopped  up  with  linen,  for  filtering  the  syrup.  When  the . 
moulds  are  filled,  and  the  contents  still  in  a  fluid  state,  it  is 
necessary  to  stir  them,  that  no  part  may  adhere  to  the  moulds, 
and  that  the  small  crystals  which  are  just  formed,  may  be  e- 
qually  diffused  though  the  whole  mass.  When  the  Sugar  is 
completely  crystallized,  the  linen  is  taken  away  from  the 
apertures  in  the  moulds,  and  the  syrup  descends  into  the  pots 
in  which  the  moulds  are  placed.  After  this  a  stratum  of 
fine  white  clay,  diluted  with  water,  Is  laid  on  the  upper  part 
of  the  loaf.  The  water  descending  through  the  Sugar  by  its 
own  weight,  mixes  with  the  syrup,  which  still  remains  in  the 
body  of  the  loaf,  and  washes  it  away.  When  the  clay  dries, 
it  is  replaced  every  time  by  fresh  moist  clay.  After  the  loaves 
have  stood  some  days  in  the  moulds,  and  have  acquired  a  con¬ 
siderable  degree  of  firmness  and  solidity,  they  are  taken  out 
and  carried  to  a  stove,  where  they  are  gradually  heated  to  fifty 
degrees  of  Reaumur,  in  order  to  dissipate  any  moisture  which 
may  be  still  confined  in  them.  After  remaining  in  the  stove 
eight  days  they  are  taken  out,  and  being  wrapped  in  blue 
paper,  they  are  ready  for  sale.  This  process  refers  to  Sugar 
once  refined;  double  refined  Sugar  is  clarified  by  white  of 
eggs  instead  of  blood,  and  fresh  water  instead  of  lime  water. 

The  beauty  of  refined  Sugar,  when  formed  into  lpaves  or 
lumps,  consists  in  whiteness,  joined  to  a  smallness  of  grain; 
in  being  dry,  hard,  ^nd  somewhat  transparent. 


328 


SUGAR-CANDY. 


* 


F.  Sucre  Candy. 

G.  ICandiszuker 


SW.  Gandisocker ,  Sockcrcan - 


di. 


D.  Kandy ,  Kandyzuiker . 

I.  Tjuccbero  candi  o  candito. 
S,  Azucar  piedra  6  cande. 
P.  Assucar  candi. 


POL.  Cukier  lodonuaty. 

R.  Ledenez. 

I*.  Saccharum  cantum ,  crys - 


talli  man. 


D  A .  Sukkerkandi. 

Sugar  Candy  is  a  preparation  of  Sugar  made  by  melting 
and  crystallizing  it  six  or  seven  times  over,  to  render  it 
hard  or  transparent.  It  is  of  three  kinds;  white,  yellow, 
and  red.  The  white  comes  from  the  loaf,  the  yellow  from 
the  clayed,  and  the  red  from  the  muscovado  Sugar. 


SULPHUR;  see  Brimstone. 


TALLOW. 


F.  Saif. 

G.  Talg. 

D.  Talg,  Talg. 

I.  Se<vo,  Sego. 

S.  Sebo. 

P.  Sebo. 

Tallow  is  a  sort  of  animal  fat,  melted  down  and  clarified  5 
being  used  in  making  soap,  and  the  dressing  of  leather,  but 
chiefly  in  the  making  of  candles. 

Tallow  is  either  yellow  or  white  candle,  or  soap  tallow. 
Its  goodness  consists  in  its  sweetness  and  purity.  Our  chief 
importation  of  Tallow  is  from  Russia;  considerable  quan¬ 
tities  are  also  brought  to  Europe  from  America. 

TAMARINDS, 


un.  1  a  17,  1  aiv. 

SW.  Talg. 

POL.  Lay. 

R.  Salo  toplenoe. 
L.  Sebum. 


F.  Tamar  ins. 

G.  Tamar inden . 
D.  Tamarinden. 
I.  Tamarindo. 

S.  Tamarindo. 


P.  Tamarinho. 
DA.  Tamar  in. 
SW.  Tamarind . 
L.  Tamarindui. 


The  Tamarind  tree,  or  tamarindus  Indica,  rises  to  the 
height  of  thirty  or  forty  feet,  sending  off  numerous  large 
branches,  which  spread  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  have 
a  beautiful  appearance*,  the  trunk  is  ereft,  and  covered  with 
rough  bark  of  a  greyish  or  ash  colour;  the  leaves  are  small 
and  pinnated,  and  of  a  yellowish  green :  the  flowers  resem¬ 
ble  the  papilionaceous  kind,  and  grow  in  lateral  clusters:  the 
fruit  is  a  pod  of  a  roundish  compressed  form,  from  three  to 
five  inches  long,  containing  two,  three,  or  four  seeds  lodged 
in  a  dark  pulpy  matter,  of  a  vineous  taste,  of  which  a  whole¬ 
some  refreshing  liquor  is  prepared. 

The  fruit  or  pods  are  gathered  in  the  West  India  islands, 
in  June,  July,  and  August,  arriving  sooner  to  maturity  in 
Tt 


330 


some  parts  than  in  others.  The  pulp  of  the  Tamarind,  with* 
the  seeds  connected  together  by  numerous  tough'  strings  or 
fibres,  are  brought  to  us  free  from  the  outer  shell  and  com¬ 
monly  preserved  in  syrup.  According  to  Long,  Tamarinds 
are  prepared  for  exportation  at  Jamaica  in  the  following  man¬ 
ner.  The  pods  are  gathered  when  full  ripe;  the  fruit  is 
then  taken  out  of  the  pod,  cleared  from  the  shelly  frag¬ 
ments,  and  placed  in  layers  in  a  cask-,  boiling  syrup  just  be¬ 
fore  it  begins  to  granulate,  is  poured  in,  till  the  cask  is  filled. 
The  syrup  pervades  every  part  quite  down  to  the  bottom, 
and  when  cool  the  cask  is  headed  for  sale.  A  better  mode 
of  preserving  this  fruit  is  with  sugar,  well  clarified  with 
eggs,  till  a  transparent  syrup  is  formed,  which  produces  a 
pleasant  flavour. 

The  Tamarind  tree  is  a  native  of  both  Indies,  of  Ame¬ 
rica,  Arabia,  and  Egypt.  The  fruit  produced  in  the  East- 
Indies,  is  more  esteemed  than  that  of  the  West,  and  easily  to 
be  distinguished  by  the  greater  length  of  the  pods,  and  the 
pulp  being  dryer,  and  of  a  darker  colour.  From  the  East- 
Indies  the  pulp  is  also  brought  to  us  preserved  without  su¬ 
gar,  which  makes  it  better  adapted  for  medicinal  composi¬ 
tion. 

This  fruit  is  employed  as  a  desert,  and  in  medicine  as  a  lax¬ 
ative,  for  abating  thirst  and  heat  in  various  inflammatory 
complaints,  likewise  for  correcting  putrid  disorders. 


TAR. 


DA.  Ticsre. 

SW.  Tjara . 

POL.  Smola  gesta. 

R.  Degot,  Smola  shitkaja . 
L.  Pix  It  quid  a. 


F.  Goudron . 

G.  Theer, 
D.  Teer. 


I.  Catrame. 
S.  Alquitran. 


P.  Alcatrao . 

Tar  is  mostly  made  from  the  wood  pinus  pinea  pincaster,  or 
wild  pine  tree.  When  they  have  obtained  all  they  can  from 
the  sap  of  the  tree,  for  the  manufactory  of  turpentine  and 
resin,  they  cut  it  down,  and  hewing  the  wood  into  billets, 
they  fill  a  pit  dug  in  the  earth,  with  these  billets,  and  being 
set  on  fire,  there  runs  from  them,  while  they  are  burning, 
a  black  thick  matter.  This  naturally  falls  to  the  bottom  of 
the  pit,  and  is  the  Tar.  The  top  of  the  pit  is  covered  with 
tiles  to  keep  the  heat  in,  and  there  is  at  the  bottom  a  little 
hole,  out  of  which  the  Tar  runs  like  oil.  If  this  hole  be 


331 


made  too  large,  it  sets  the  whole  quantity  of  the  tar  on  fire, 
but  if  small  enough,  it  runs  quickly  out. 

The  Tar  being  thus  made,  is  put  in  barrels:  and  if  to  be 
made  in  pitch  they  put  it  into  large  boiling  vessels,  without 
adding  any  thing  to  it.  It  is  then  suffered  to  boil  a  while, 
and  on  being  let  out  and  cooled,  is  found  to  be  what  we  call 
pitch. 

The  finest  and  clearest  Tar,  as  it  distils  from  the  wood, 
being  kept  separate,  white  or  Burgundy  pitch  is  made  of 
it,  by  melting  the  same  with  oil  of  turpentine.  Some  er¬ 
roneously  pretend,  that  Burgundy  pitch  is  a  native  pitch, 
distilling  from  a  resinous  tree  growing  in  the  mountains  of 
Franehe  Comte. 


TARTAR*,  see  Argol. 


F.  The. 

G.  Thee. 

D.  Thee. 

I.  Te. 

S.  The ,  Te. 
P.  Cha. 


TEA. 


DA.  Thee. 

SW.  Thee. 

POL.  Her  hat  a ,  Te. 
R.  Tschai . 
h.  Thea. 


Tea,  is  the  dried  leaves  of  the  Tea  plant,  a  commodity  so 
generally  used  among  us,  that  it  must  excite  the  curiosity  of 
every  one,  to  know  something  of  its  origin*,  but  unluckily,  the 
countries  of  which  the  Tea  plant  is  a  native,  are  so  much 
hidden  from  the  exploring  eyes  of  Europeans,  that  we  are 
not  able  to  give  any  thing  but  an  imperfedf  account  of  it. 

The  first  European  writer  who  mentions  Tea  is  Giovanni 
Botero,  an  eminent  Italian  author,  who  published  a  treatise 
about  the  year  1590,  of  the  causes  of  the  magnificence  and 
greatness  of  cities.  He  does  not  indeed  mention  its  name, 
but  describes  it  in  such  a  manner,  that  it  is  impossible  to 
mistake  it.  “  The  Chinese  (says  he,)  have  an  herb,  out  of 
which  they  press  a  delicate  juice,  which  serves  them  for  drink 
instead  of  wine:  it  also  preserves  their  health,  and  frees  them 
from  all  those  evils,  which  the  immoderate  use  of  wine  pro¬ 
duces  among  us.” 

Tea  was  introduced  into  Europe  by  the  Dutch  East  India 
Company  in  the  year  1610.  It  is  generally  said,  that  it  was 
first  imported  from  Holland  into  England  in  1666,  by  the 
Lords  Arlington  and  Ossory,  whose  ladies  brought  it  into 


232 


fashion  among  people  of  their  rank.  But  it  was  used  in  cof¬ 
fee  houses  before  that  period,  as  appears  from  an  a£t  of  par¬ 
liament  made  in  1660,  in  which  a  duty  of  8d.  was  laid  on 
every  gallon  of  the  infusion  sold  in  these  places.  In  1666  it 
was  sold  in  London  for  60s.  per  pound,  though  it  did  not 
cost  more  than  2s.  6d.  to  3s.  6d.  at  Batavia.  It  continued 
at  this  price  till  1707.  In  1715  green  Tea  began  to  be  used; 
and  as  great  quantities  were  then  imported,  the  price  was 
lessened,  and  the  practice  of  drinking  Tea  descended  to  the 
lower  ranks.  In  1720  the  French  began  to  send  it  to  us  by 
a  clandestine  commerce.  Since  that  period  the  demand  has 
been  increasing  yearly,  and  it  has  become  almost  a  necessary 
of  life  in  several  parts  of  Europe,  among  the  lowest  as  well 
as  the  highest  ranks. 

The  following  table,  of  the  Tea  imported  annually  into 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland  since  1717,  will  give  an  idea  of 
the  growing  consumption  of  this  article; 

from  1717  to  1726  .  700,000 lb. 

1732  to  1742  .  1,200,0001b. 

in  1755  near .  4, 000,0001b. 

1766  ..  . .  6,000,0001b. 

1785  about .  12,000,000 lb. 

1794  from  ....  16  to  20, 000,0001b. 

Besides  these  immense  quantities  imported  into  Great  Bri¬ 
tain  and  Ireland,  much  has  been  brought  to  other  parts  of 
Europe.  In  1766  the  whole  quantity  of  Tea  imported  into 
Europe  from  China  amounted  to  seventeen  millions,  and  in 
1785  it  was  computed  to  be  about  nineteen  millions  of 
pounds. 

The  Tea  plant  is  a  native  of  Japan,  China,  and  Tonquin; 
and  has  not  as  far  as  we  can  learn,  been  found  growing  spon¬ 
taneously  in  any  other  part  of  the  world.  Linnseus  says, 
that  there  are  two  species  of  the  Tea  plant,  the  bohea,  and 
the  viridis  or  green  Tea.  It  is  an  evergreen,  which  grows  to 
the  height  of  five  or  six  feet;  Le  Compte  says  ten  or  twelve. 
The  leaves  which  are  the  only  valuable  part  of  it,  are  about 
an  inch  and  a  half  long,  narrow,  indented  and  tapering  to  a 
point,  like  those  of  the  sweet  briar,  and  of  a  dark  green  co¬ 
lour.  The  flowers  resemble  those  of  the  white  wild  rose. 
The  stem  spreads  into  many  irregular  brariches.  The  wood 
is  hard,  of  a  whitish  green  colour,  and  the  bark  is  of  a  green¬ 
ish  colour,  with  a  bitter  nauseous  and  astringent  taste.  The 
fruit  is  small,  and  contains  several  round  blackish  seeds,  about 
the  bigness  of  a  bean  or  large  pea. 


This  plant  delights  in  valleys,  is  frequent  on  the  sloping 
sides  of  mountains,  and  the  banks  of  rivers,  where  it  enjoys 
a  southern  exposure.  It  flourishes  in  the  northern  latitudes 
of  Pekin,  as  well  as  round  Canton,  but  attains  the  greatest 
perfection  in  the  mild  temperate  regions  of  Nankin.  In  Ja¬ 
pan,  Tea  is  planted  round  the  bor.ders  of  fields,  without  re¬ 
gard  to  the  soil:  but  as  it  is  an  important  article  of  com¬ 
merce  with  the  Chinese,  whose  fields  are  covered  with  it, 
it  is  by  them  cultivated  with  care.  The  Tea  which  grows  in 
rocky  ground  is  the  best.  It  is  propagated  by  seeds. 

The  leaves  are  not  fit  for  being  plucked  till  the  shrub  be 
of  three  years  growth.  In  seven  years  it  rises  to  a  man’s 
height;  but  as  it  then  bears  but  few  leaves  it  is  cut  down  to 
the  stem,  and  this  produces  a  new  crop  of  fresh  shoots  the 
following  summer,  every  one  of  which  bears  nearly  as  many 
leaves  as  a  whole  shrub.  Sometimes  the  plants  are  not  cut 
down  till  they  are  ten  years  old.  We  are  informed  by 
Koempfer  that  there  are  three  seasons  in  which  the  leaves 
are  collected  in  the  isles  of  Japan,  from  which  the  Tea  de¬ 
rives  different  degrees  of  perfection. 

The  first  gathering  commences  at  the  end  of  February  or 
beginning  of  March.  The  leaves  are  then  small,  tender, 
and  unfolded,  and  not  above  three  or  four  days  old:  these 
are  called ficVi-tsiaa>  or  Tea  in  powder;  it  is  also  called  Im¬ 
perial  Tea,  being  generally  reserved  for  the  court  and  peo¬ 
ple  of  rank;  and  sometimes  it  is  also  named  bloom  Tea.  It 
is  sold  in  China  for  20d.  or  2s.  per  lb.  The  labourers  em¬ 
ployed  in  collecting  it  do  not  pull  the  leaves  by  handfuls,  but 
pick  them  one  by  one,  and  take  every  precaution  that  they 
may  not  break  them. 

The  second  crop  is  gathered  about  the  end  of  March,  or 
beginning  of  April.  At  this  season  part  of  the  leaves  have 
attained  their  full  growth,  and  the  rest  are  not  half  their 
size.  This  difference  however  does  not  prevent  them  from 
being  all  gathered  indiscriminately.  They  are  afterwards 
picked  and  assorted  into  different  parcels,  according  to  their 
age  and  size.  The  youngest  are  carefully  separated  from  the 
rest,  and  often  sold  for  Imperial  Tea. 

The  third  crop  is  gathered  in  the  end  of  May,  or  in  the 
month  of  June.  The  leaves  are  then  very  numerous  and 
thick,  and  have  acquired  their  full  growth.  This  is  the 
coarsest  kind  of  Tea  of  all,  and  is  reserved  for  the  common 
people.  Some  of  the  Japanese  colled:  their  Tea  only  at 
two  seasons  of  the  year,  which  correspond  to  the  second 
and  third  already  mentioned;  others  confine  themselves  to 


234 


i 

V 


one  general  gathering  of  their  crop  towards  the  month  of 
June*  however,  they  always  form  afterwards  different  as¬ 
sortments  of  the  leaves. 

The  finest  and  most  celebrated  Tea  of  Japan  is  that  which 
grows  near  Ud-si,  a  small  village  situated  close  to  the  sea, 
and  not  far  distant  from  Meaco.  In  the  district  of  this  vil¬ 
lage  is  a  mountain  extremely  adapted  for  the  culture  of  fine 
Tea.  It  is  enclosed  by  hedges  and  ditches  to  prevent  all  ac¬ 
cess  to  it.  The  Tea  shrubs  that  grow  on  this  mountain  are 
planted  in  regular  order,  and  are  divided  by  different  ave¬ 
nues  and  alleys.  The  care  of  this  place  is  entrusted  to  peo¬ 
ple  who  are  ordered  to  guard  the  leaves  from  dust,  and  to 
defend  them  from  the  inclemency  of  the  weather.  Before 
collecting  the  Tea  they  abstain  from  every  kind  of  gross  food 
for  some  weeks,  that  their  breath  and  perspiration  may  not 
in  the  least  injure  the  leaves,  which  they  do  not  touch  but 
with  very  fine  gloves.  When  this  fine  Tea  has  undergone 
the  process  necessary  for  its  preservation,  it  is  escorted  by 
the  superintendant  of  the  mountain,  and  a  strong  guard, 
to  the  Emperor’s  court,  and  reserved  for  the  use  of  the  Im¬ 
perial  family. 

When  the  Tea  leaves  have  been  collected  they  are  expo¬ 
sed  to  the  steam  of  boiling  water*,  after  which  they  are  put 
upon  plates  of  copper,  and  held  over  the  fire  until  they  be¬ 
come  dry  and  shrivelled,  and  appear  such  as  we  have  them 
in  Europe.  According  to  the  testimony  of  Koempfer  Tea  is 
prepared  in  the  isles  of  Japan  in  the  following  manner. 
There  are  public  buildings  ereCted  for  the  purpose  of  prepa¬ 
ring  the  fresh  gathered  Tea.  These  buildings  contain  a 
great  number  of  small  stoves  raised  about  three  feet  high, 
and  each  of  which  has  a  broad  plate  of  iron  fixed  over  its 
mouth.  The  workmen  are  seated  round  a  large  table  co¬ 
vered  with  mats,  and  are  employed  in  rolling  the  Tea  leaves, 
which  are  spread  out  upon  them.  When  the  iron  plates  are 
heated  to  a  certain  degree  by  the  fire  they  cover  them  with 
a  few  pounds  of  fresh  gathered  leaves,  which  being  green 
and  full  of  sap,  crackle  as  soon  as  they  touch  the  plate.  It 
is  then  the  business  of  the  workman  to  stir  them  with  his  na¬ 
ked  hands  as  quickly  as  possible,  until  they  become  so  warm, 
that  he  cannot  easily  endure  the  heat.  He  then  takes  off  the 
leaves  with  a  kind  of  shovel,  and  lays  them  upon  mats.  The 
people  who  are  employed  in  mixing  them  take  a  small  quan¬ 
tity  at  a  time,  roll  them  in  their  hands  always  in  the  same 
direction*,  while  others  keep  continually  stirring  them,  in  or¬ 
der  that  they  may  cool  sooner,  and  preserve  their  shrivelled 


335 


figure  the  longer.  This  process  is  repeated  two  or  three 
times,  and  even  oftener,  before  the  Tea  is  deposited  in  the 
warehouses.  These  precautions  are  necessary  to  extract  all 
the  moisture  from  the  leaves. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce  this  valuable 
plant  into  Europe,  but  from  want  of  proper  precautions  most 
of  these  attempts  have  miscarried.  The  plants  which  are  cul¬ 
tivated  in  the  gardens  near  London,  thrive  well  in  the  green 
house  during  winter,  and  some  stand  that  season  in  the  open 
air. 

In  this  country  Teas  are  generally  divided  into  three  kinds 
of  green,  and  five  of  bohea:  the  former  are,  1.  Imperial  or 
Bloom  Tea,  with  a  large  loose  leaf,  light  green  colour,  and 
faint  delicate  smell;  2.  Hyson,  so  called  from  the  merchant 
who  first  imported  it:  the  leaves  of  this  are  closely  curled 
and  small  of  a  green  colour,  verging  to  a  blue;  and  3.  Sin- 
glo  Tea,  from  the  name  of  the  place  where  it  is  cultivated. 
The  Boheas  are,  1.  Souchong,  which  imparts  a  yellow  green 
colour  by  infusion;  2.  Camho,  so  called  from  the  place  where 
it  is  made,  a  fragrant  Tea,  with  a  violet  smell,  its  infusion 
pale;  3.  Congo,  which  has  a  larger  leaf  than  the  following, 
and  its  infusion  somewhat  deeper,  resembling  common  Bo¬ 
hea  in  the  colour^of  the  leaf;  4.  Pekoe  Tea,  known  by  the 
appearance  of  small  white  flowers  mixed  with  it;  5.  Com¬ 
mon  Bohea,  whose  leaves  are  of  one  colour.  There  are 
other  varieties,  particularly  a  kind  of  green  Tea;  done  up 
in  roundish  balls,  called  gunpowder  Tea. 

Tea  is  the  common  drink  of  the  Chinese;  and  was  not 
introduced  among  them  through  vain  caprice.  Almost 
throughout  the  empire  the  water  is  unwholsome  and  nau¬ 
seous.  Of  all  the  methods  that  were  tried  to  improve  it, 
none  succeeded  so  well  as  Tea.  Upon  trial,  it  was  thought 
to  be  endued  with  other  virtues,  and  was  extolled  as  an  ex¬ 
cellent  dissolvent,  a  purifier  of  the  blood,  a  strengthener  of 
the  head  and  stomach,  and  a  promoter  of  digestion  and  per¬ 
spiration. 

We  know  the^Chinese  reserve  the  best  Tea  for  themselves, 
and  adulterate  that  intended  for  exportation;  we  know  also, 
that  since  the  exportation  has  been  so  great,  they  are  not 
so  circumspeft  in  the  choice  of  the  soil,  nor  so  careful  in 
the  preparation  of  the  Tea,  and  that  our  manner  of  using  it 
too  hot  and  strong,  always  mixed  with  a  deal  of  sugar,  fre¬ 
quently  with  perfumes,  and  sometimes  with  pernicious  li¬ 
quors,  must  contribute  to  lessen  its  virtues.  Notwithstanding 
all  this,  the  frenzy  for  this  Asiatic  infusion  has  now  become 


33(5 


almost  universal  in  the  northern  parts  of  Europe  ;  but  it  can¬ 
not  be  denied,  that  since  its  first  introduction,  it  has  con¬ 
tributed  more  to  the  sobriety  of  the  nation,  than  the  severest 
laws,  the  most  eloquent  harangues  of  Christian  orators,  or 
the  best  treatises  of  morality. 

TERRA  JAPANICA;  see  Japan  Earth . 

TERRA  LEMNIA;  see  Bole. 

TERRA  POZZOLANA;  see  Puzzulana . 

TERRA  SIGILLATA;  see  Bole . 

TERRE  VERTE, 


Is  the  name  of  a  green  earth  much  used  by  painters,  both 
singly  for  a  good  standing  green,  and  in  mixture  with  other 
colours. 

It  is  an  indurated  clay,  of  a  deep  bluish-green  colour,  and 
is  found  in  the  earth  in  lumps  of  different  sizes.  It  is  of  a 
fine  regular  and  even  stru&ure,  and  not  very  hard;  of  an 
even  and  glossy  surface,  very  smooth  to  ihe  touch,  and  in 
some  degree  resembling  the  morochthus,  or  French  chalk, 
but  adhering  firmly  to  the  tongue.  It  does  not  ferment 
with  acids,  and  burns  to  a  dusky  brown  colour. 

This  earth  is  dug  in  the  island  of  Cyprus,  and  in  many 
parts  of  France  and  Italy.  That  from  the  neighbourhood  of 
Verona  has  been  esteemed  the  best  in  the  world;  but  of  late 
there  has  been  some  dug  in  France  that  equals  it.  There  is 
also  an  earth  dug  on  Mendip  Hills,  in  the  sinking  for  coal, 
which,  though  wholly  unnoticed,  is  nearly,  if  not  wholly, 
of  equal  value. 

TIN. 


F.  Etain. 

G.  Zinrt . 

D.  Tin. 

1.  Stagno. 

S,  Estagno>  Peltre . 
P.  Estanho.  * 


DA.  Tim. 
SW.  Penn. 
POL.  Cyna . 
R.  Olovoo. 
L.  Stannum . 


The  colour  of  this  metal  resembles  silver,  but  is  somewhat 
darker.  It  is  softer,  less  elastic  and  sonorous,  than  any 
other  metal,  except  lead.  "When  bent  backwards  and  for- 


wards,  it  occasions  a  crackling  sound,  as  if  torn  asunder.  It 
is  the  lightest  of  all  the  malleable  metals,  being  little  more 
than  seven  times  specifically  heavier  than  water. 

Tin  is  commonly  reckoned  the  least  ductile  of  all  metals 
except  lead;  and  certainly  is  so  in  regard  to  du&ility  into 
wire,  but  not  in  regard  to  extensibility  into  leaves.  It  melts 
the  most  easily  of  all  the  metals.  Heated  till  almost  ready 
to  melt  it  becomes  so  brittle,  that  large  blocks  may  be  easily 
beat  to  pieces  by  a  blow.  The  purer  sort,  from  its  facility 
of  breaking  into  long  shining  pieces,  is  called  grain  Tin, 

With  the  heat  necessary  for  fusion  it  may  also  be  calcined; 
or  at  least  so  far  deprived  of  its  phlogiston,  as  to  appear  in 
the  form  of  a  grey  caix,  which  may  be  entirely  reduced  to 
Tin  by  the  addition  oflnflammable  matter.  By  longer  con¬ 
tinuance  in  the  fire  the  metal  is  converted  from  a  greyish 
into  a  perfe&ly  white  calx,  called  putty^  which  is  used  for 
polishing  glass,  and  other  hard  bodies. 

The  calx  of  Tin  is  the  most  refra&ory  of  all  others.  Even 
in  the  focus  of  a  large  burning  mirror  it  only  softens  a  little, 
and  forms  crystalline  filaments.  With  glass  of  bismuth,  and 
the  simple  and  arsenical  glasses  of  lead,  it  forms  opaque  milky 
compounds.  By  this  property  it  is  fitted  for  making  the 
basis  of  the  imperfect  glasses  called  enamels. 

The  vapours  which  rise  from  Tin,  by  whatever  method  it 
is  calcined,  have  generally  an  arsenical  smell.  The  arsenic 
is  strongly  retained  by  the  Tin,  so  as  scarcely  to  be  separable 
by  any  degree  of  fire.  Hence  as  the  Tin  ores  abound  in 
arsenic,,  the  common  Tin  is  found  also  to  participate  of  that 
mineral.  It  has  been  observed  that  Malacca  Tin,  which  is  one 
of  the  purest  sorts,  yielded  no  less  than  one-fourth  of  its 
weight  of  arsenical  crystals. 

Tin,  notwithstanding  its  being  soon  deprived  of  its  lustre,  is 
nevertheless  much  less  liable  to  rust  than  iron,  copper,  or  lead  ; 
and  hence  is  advantageously  used  for  covering  over  the  in¬ 
sides  of  other  metalline  vessels.  The  amalgama  of  mercury 
and  Tin  is  employed  to  cover  one  of  the  surfaces  of  looking 
glasses.  •  % 

There  are  considerable  Tin  mines  on  the  Malabar  coast, 
the  island  of  Banda,  in  Spain,  and  in  the  Spanish  West 
Indies ;  both  the  latter  are  not  worked.  But  mines  which 
produce  by  far  more  Tin  than  any  of  the  above  are  those 
of  the  county  of  Cornwall.  The  Phenicians  early  visited 
these  coasts  for  the  said  article,  some  think  four  hundred  or 
four  hundred  and  fifty  years  before  Christ,  and  the  mines 
continued  to  be  wrought,  with  various  success,  at  different 
U  u 


s  38 


periods.  In  the  time  of  King  John  they  appear  to  have 
yielded  no  great  emolument  the  right  of  working  them 
being  wholly  in  the  king,  as  Earl  of  Cornwall*,  but  in  the 
time  of  Richard,  king  of  the  Romans  and  earl  of  Cornwall, 
the  Tin-mines  were  immensely  rich.  After  that  time  they 
were  again  neglefled,  till  the  gentlemen  of  Blackmore,  lords 
of  seven  tithings,  best  stored  with  Tin  at  that  time,  obtained 
of  Edmund,  Earl  of  Cornwall,  son  of  Richard  king  of  the 
Romans,  a  charter  under  his  own  seal,  with  more  explicit 
grants  of  privileges. 

The  Tin  of  the  whole  county,  which  in  Carew’s  time  in 
the  last  century  amounted  from  £.  30  to  40,000  yearly,  has 
of  late  amounted  from  ^.180,000  to.  190,000  sterling.  Of 
this  the  duke  of  Cornwall  receives  for  his  4s.  duty  on  every 
cwt.  of  coined  white  Tin  about  ^.10,000  yearly;  the  bounders 
or  proprietors  of  the  soil  about  one-sixth  at  a  medium  clear, 
or  about  .£.30,000  yearly;  the  remainder  goes  to  the  adven¬ 
turers  in  the  mine,  who  are  at  all  the  charge  of  working. 

Tin  is  found  collected  and  fixed  in  lodes  and  floors,  or  in 
grains  and  bunches,  in  the  natural  rock;  or  loose  and  de¬ 
tached  in  single  separate  stones,  called  shodes  or  streams; 
or  in  a  continued  course  of  such  stones,  called  the  beuheyl 
or  living  stream;  or  in  an  arenaceous  pulverized  state. 

The  Tin  being  divided  among  the  lords  and  adventurers 
is  stamped  and  worked  at  the  mill;  and  being  thus  dressed, 
is  carried  under  the  name  of  black  Tin  to  the  melting  house, 
where  it  is  melted  by  Welsh  pit-coal,  poured  int?  blocks  or 
bars,  and  carried  to  the  coinage  town. 

The  coinage  towns  are  five  towns,  appointed  in  the  most 
convenient  parts  of  the  county  of  Cornwall,  for  the  tinners 
to  bring  their  Tin  to  every  quarter  of  a  year.  These  are; 
Leskard,  Lestwithiel,  Truro,  Helston,  and  Penzance. 

TIN  GLASS;  see  Bismuth . 


TOBACCO. 


F.  T abac. 

G.  Tabak . 
D.  Tabak. 
I.  Tabacco . 
S.  Tabaco. 
P.  Tabacco. 


DA.  Tobak . 
SW.  Tobak. 
POL.  Tabaka. 
R.  Tabak. 

L.  Tabacum . 


The  Tobacco  plant,  nicotiana  tobacum,  was  first  discovered 
by  the  Spaniards  in  1520,  near  Tobasco,  a  province  of  Yu- 


/ 


$39 


tatan,  in  the  gulf-  of  Mexico;  whence  it  derives  its  name. 
It  had  been  used  by  the  inhabitants  of  America  long  before 
that  period,  and  was  soon  after  brought  to  our  climates. 
The  French  at  its  first  introduction  among  them  gave  it 
several  names;  as  nicotiana,  or  the  embassador’s  herb,  from 
J.  Nicot,  the  French  embassador  at  Lisbon,  who  brought 
some  of  it  from  thence.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  is  generally 
said  to  have  been  the  first  who  introduced  it  into  England, 
about  the  year  1585,  and  who  taught  his  countrymen  how 
to  smoke  it. 

There  are  two  varieties  of  that  species  of  Tobacco  which 
is  cultivated  for  common  use;  which  are  distinguished  by 
the  names  Oronokoe  and  sweet  scented  Tobacco.  They 
differ  from  each  other  only  in  thefigure  of  their  leaves;  thoseof 
the  former  being  longer  and  narrower  than  the  latter.  The 
Oronokoe  is  principally  used  for  smoking,  and  the  sweet 
scented  Tobacco  for  snuff.  They  are  tall  herbaceous  plants, 
rising  with  a  strong  stem  from  six  to  nine  feet  high.  The 
stalk  near  the  root  is  upwards  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and 
surrounded  with  a  kind  of  hairy  or  velvet  clammy  substance, 
of  a  yellowish  green  colour.  The  leaves  are  rather  of  a 
deeper  green,  and  grow  alternately,  at  the  distance  of  two 
or  three  inches  from  each  other;  but  as  they  increase  incize 
they  acquire  a  yellowish  cast.  They  are  oblong,  of  appear 
shaped  oval,  the  largest  about  twenty  inches  long,  but  de¬ 
creasing  in  size  as  they  ascend,  till  they  come  to  be  only  ten 
inches  long,  and  about  half  as  broad.  The  stem  and  branches 
are  terminated  by  large  bunches  of  flowers  colle&ed  into 
clusters,  of  a  delicate  red,  the  edges  inclining  to  a  pale  purple; 
these  are  succeeded  by  seeds  of  a  brown  colour,  and  kidney 
shaped.  The  seeds  are  very  small,  each  capsule  containing 
about  one  thousand;  and  the  whole  produce  of  a  single  plant 
is  reckoned  at  about  350,000. 

Tobacco  thrives  best  in  a  warm,  light,  kindly-rich  soil. 
It  is  generally  sown  about  the  middle  of  April,  and  in  about 
a  month’s  time  it  has  four  or  five  leaves,  when  it  is  fit  for 
being  transplanted.  When  it  has  risen  to  the  height  of  two 
feet  or  more,  it  commonly  begins  to  put  forth  the  branches 
on  which  the  flowers  and  seeds  are  produced;  but  as  this 
expansion  if  suffered  to  take  place  would  drain  the  nutriment 
from  the  leaves,  and  thereby  lessen  their  size  and  efficacy, 
it  becomes  needful  at  this  stage  to  nip  off  the  extremity  of 
the  stalk,  to  prevent  its  growing  higher.  In  some  parts, 
when  the  Tobacco  is  designed  to  be  remarkably  powerful, 
eleven  or  twelve  leaves  only  are  allowed  to  expand;  but 


340 


sometimes  the  planter  suffers  it  to  put  forth  more,  as  far  as 
eighteen  or  twenty,  in  proportion  to  the  degree  of  strength 
or  mildness,  which  he  wishes  his  crop  to  have.  In  this  cal¬ 
culation,  the  three  or  four  inferior  and  smaller  leaves  next 
the  ground  are  not  to  be  reckoned. 

When  the  Tobacco  is  fit  to  be  gathered,  which  will  appear 
from  the  leaves  becoming  more  corrugated  or  rough,  and  mot¬ 
tled  with  yellowish  spots  on  the  raised  parts,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  cut  the  plants  down,  as  close  to  the  root  as  possible,  which 
being  done  in  the  morning,  they  must  be  left  exposed  to  the 
rays  of  the  sun  till  the  leaves  become  limber,  and  bend  any 
way  without  breaking.  Then  the  plants  must  be  laid  in  heaps 
to  ferment.  The  longer  they  lie  in  this  situation,  which  is 
called  sweating,  the  darker  coloured  is  the  Tobacco;  and 
after  having  been  left  in  it  for  three  or  four  days,  they  may  be 
fastened  together  in  pairs,  and  hung  across  a  pole.  In  about 
a  month  the  leaves  will  be  thoroughly  dried,  and  of  a  proper 
temperature  to  be  taken  down.  As  soon  as  taken  down  they 
must  again  be  laid  in  a  heap,  and  pressed  with  heavy  logs 
of  wood  for  about  a  week.  This  is  called  the  second  and  last 
sweating,  and  when  compleated,  the  leaves  are  tied  up  in 
bunches  or  hands,  and  kept  in  a  cellar  or  other  damp  place, 
fit  for  sale. 

Among  all  the  productions  of  foreign  climates  introduced 
into  these  Kingdoms,  scarce  any  has  been  held  in  higher  es¬ 
teem  by  persons  of  every  rank,  thanTobacco.  In  the  countries 
of  which  it  is  a  native,  it  is  considered  by  the  Indians  as  the 
most  valuable  offering  that  can  be  made  to  the  beings  they 
worship. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  East  Indies,  and  of  Africa,  culti¬ 
vate  Tobacco  only  for  their  own  use.  They  neither  sell  nor 
purchase  any. 

In  Turkey  the  Tobacco  leaves^.are  soaked  in  salt-water, 
before  they  are  dried,  to  extract  some  of  their  acrimony  and 
render  them  more  mild. 

The  Turks  smoke  their  Tobacco  either  in  the  common 
way,  or  they  draw  the  smoke  through  water,  in  order  to 
render  it  milder,  and  make  it  less  disagreeable  to  the  smell 
and  taste.  The  Persian  Tobacco  is  the  only  sort  fit  to  be 
smoked  through  water;  it  is  stronger  than  the  ordinary  To¬ 
bacco  of  the  East  and  smokes  disagreeable  in  a  common 
pipe.  It  appears  that  the  use  of  Tobacco  was  not  known  in 
Turkey,  earlier  than  the  seventeenth  century. 

Salonica  is  the  great  mart  for  Tobacco  in  the  Levant.  Sy¬ 
ria,  the  Morea  or  the  Peloponnesus,  and  Egypt,  send  there 


341 


nil  their  superfluous  quantity.  From  this  port  it  is  sent  to 
Italy,  where  it  is  smoked,  after  it  has  been  mixed  with  To¬ 
bacco  of  Dalmatia  and  Croatia. 

The  Tobacco  of  these  two  last  provinces  is  of  a  very  ex¬ 
cellent  kind:  but  it  is  so  strong  that  it  cannot  be  used  till 
mixed  with  a  milder  sort. 

The  Tobacco  of  Hungary  would  be  tolerably  good  if  it 
had  not  generally  a  smell  of  smoke,  which  is  very  disgusting. 

In  Ukraine,  Livonia,  Prussia,  and  Pomerania,  they  cul¬ 
tivate  a  tolerably  large  quantity  of  this  production.  Its  leaves 
are  wider  than  they  are  long,  very  thin,  and  have  neither 
flavour  nor  consistence. 

The  Tobacco  of  the  Palatinate  is  very  indifferent,  but  has 
the  quality  of  mixing  with  a  better  kind,  and  of  acquiring 
its  flavour. 

Holland  also  furnishes  Tobacco;  that  which  is  produced 
in  the  province  of  Utrecht,  at  Ammersfort,  and  four  or  five 
neighbouring  districts,  is  of  a  superior  quality.  Its  leaves 
are  large,  supple,  oily,  and  of  a  good  colour.  It  has  the 
advantage  of  communicating  its  perfume  to  Tobacco  of  infe¬ 
rior  value.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  this  latter  sort  upon  the 
territories  of  the  Republic;  but  the  species  which  grows  in 
Guelderland  is  the  worst  of  any. 

Tobacco  was  formerly  cultivated  in  France,  and  with  great 
success,  near  Pont  de  1’ Arche  in  Normandy;  at  Verton  in 
Picardy;  and  at  Montauban,  Tonneins,  and  Cleral,  in  Guy- 
enne.  It  was  prohibited  in  1721,  except  upon  some  frontier 
towns,  whose  terms  of  capitulation  it  was  not  thought  proper 
to  infringe.  In  consequence  of  this,  Tobacco  was  cultivated 
previous  to  the  revolution  in  Flanders  and  Alsace.  These 
Tobaccos,  though  weak,  may  be  mixed  without  inconveni¬ 
ence,  with  others  of  a  superior  kind. 

In  the  beginning,  the  islands  of  the  New  World  attended 
to  the  culture  of  Tobacco,  but  it  was  by  degrees  succeeded 
by  richer  productions  in  them  all,  except  Cuba,  which  sup¬ 
plies  all  the  snuff  consumed  by  the  Spaniards  of  both  hemi¬ 
spheres.  Its  perfume  is  exquisite,  but  it  is  too  strong.  The 
same  crown  derives  from  Caraccas,  the  Tobacco  which  is 
smoked  by  its  subjects  in  Europe.  It  is  likewise  used  in  the 
North,  and  in  Holland,  because  there  is  none  to  be  found 
any  where  to  be  compared  with  it  for  this  purpose.  Hence 
the  Havanna  segars. 

The  Brazils  cultivated  this  produClion  very  early,  and 
have-not  since  disdained  it.  They  have  been  encouraged  in 


this  pursuit  by  the  constant  repute  which  their  Tobacco  has 
enjoyed  upon  the  western  coasts  of  Africa.  Even  in  our 
climates  it  is  in  tolerable  request  among  persons  who  smoke. 
It  could  not  be  taken  in  snuff  on  account  of  its  acrimony, 
without  the  preparations  which  it  undergoes.  These  prepa¬ 
rations  consist  in  soaking  every  leaf  in  a  deco&ion  of  Tobacco 
and  Gum  Copal.  These  leaves,  thus  steeped,  are  formed 
into  rolls,  and  wrapped  up  in  the  skin  of  an  ox,  which  keeps 
up  their,  moisture. 

But  the  Tobaccos  of  all  these  countries  are  but  small,  and 
the  quality  upon  the  whole  very  inferior,  compared  to  the 
Maryland  and  the  Virginia  crops,  the  former  province  pro¬ 
ducing,  principally,  Tobacco  fit  for  smoking,  and  the  latter 
for  snuff. 

From  1752  till  the  end  of  1755  Great  Britain  received 
from  Virginia  and  Maryland  together,  3,501,110  cwt.  of 
Tobacco,  being  for  each  year  875,280  ewt.  Great  Britain 
exported  2,989,800  cwt.  which  reduced  its  annual  consump¬ 
tion  to  127,830  cwt.  From  the  year  1763  till  the  end  of 
1770,  the  two  colonies  sent  to  the  mother  country  no  more 
than  6,500,000  cwt.  or  812,500  cwt.  each  of  the  eight 
years.  No  more  was  sold  to  foreigners  than  5,148,000  cwt. 
or  643,500  cwt.  per  annum;  the  nation  therefore  annually 
consumed  169,000  cwt. 

In  the  interval  between  these  two  periods  therefore,  the 
importation  decreased  annually,  one  year  with  another 
62,780  cwt.  and  the  exportation  103,950  cwt.  while  the 
consumption  in  England  increased  41,170  cwt.  every  year. 

The  use  of  Tobacco  has  not  decreased  in  Europe;  the 
passion  for  this  superfluity  has  even  increased,  notwithstand¬ 
ing  the  heavy  duties  with  which  it  has  been  burthened  by 
ail  governments.  If  the  Tobacco  furnished  by  North  Ame¬ 
rica  be  daily  less  sought  after  among  us,  it  is  because  Hol¬ 
land,  Alsace,  the  Palatinate  and  Russia,  have  carried  on 
this  culture  with  great  industry. 

Tobacco  is  used  in  medicine,  externally  and  internally. 


343 


TOPAZ. 


F.  Topase . 

G.  Topas. 
D.  Topaas . 
I.  Topazio . 
S.  Topaiio. 
P.  Topazio. 


DA.  Topas, 

sw. 

POL.  Topazyn. 
R.  Topas . 

L.  Topasius. 


The  Topaz  is  a  sort  of  a  precious  stone;  being  transparent, 
of  a  beautiful  yellow,  or  gold  colour,  very  hard,  and  takes 
a  fine  polish.  It  is  found  in  several  parts  of  the  East  Indies, 
in  Ethiopia,  Arabia,  Peru,  and  Bohemia.  The  oriental  To¬ 
pazes  are  most  esteemed,  whose  colour  borders  on  the  orange; 
those  of  Peru  are  softer,  but  their  colour  much  the  same; 
the  yellow  of  those  of  Bohemia  is  a  little  blackish,  they  are 
softest  of  all,  and  their  polish  the  coarsest.  This  gem  is 
easily  counterfeited ;  and  there  are  factitious  Topazes,  to  the 
eye  not  inferior  to  the  real  ones. 


TORTOISE  SHELL. 


F.  Ecaille  ( de  tortue ),  Caret . 

G.  Schildpad ,  Tchildkrbtcn 
schale. 

D.  Schildpad. 

I.  Tartaruga . 

S.  Carey ,  Concha . 


P.  Tartaruga,  Concha . 
DA.  Skildpaddeskal. 

SW.  Skoldpadda. 

POL.  Skorupa  zolwia. 

R.  Kost  tscherepacho<vjaja. 
L.  7 estudinis  testa. 


Tortoise  shell  is  the  shell,  or  rather  the  scales,  of  the 
testaceous  animal  called  the  tortoise,  used  in  inlaying  and  in 
various  other  works,  as  for  snuff  boxes,  combs,  &c. 

The  best  Tortoise  shell  is  thick,  clear,  transparent,  of  the 
colour  of  antimony,  sprinkled  with  brown  and  white.  When 
used  in  marquetry,  &c.  the  workmen  give  it  what  colour 
they  please  by  means  of  coloured  leaves,  which  they  put 
underneath  it. 


\ 


v 


i 


344* 


TRAIN  OIL. 


F.  Huile  de  poisscn. 

G.  Fisch  Thran. 

D.  T hr a an. 

I .  Olio  di  pesce. 

S.  Gras  a ,  Aceito  de  Pescado. 


P.  Azeiie  de  peixe. 

DA.  Tran. 

SW.  Tran. 

R.  Salo  'woravannoe,  Wcr^wan. 
L.  Oleum  piscinum. 


Train-oil  is  a  general  name  for  different  sorts  of  fish  oils ; 
such  as  whale,  seal,  cod,  elephant,  pilchard  oil,  See.  Among 
these,  whale  oil  is  by  far  the  most  important  article. 

Great  Britain  was  for  a  long  time  agitated  with  the  desire 
of  sharing  the  whale  fishery  with  the  Dutch;  and.  the  legis¬ 
lature  justly  considering  that  trade  as  of  great  national  im¬ 
portance,  bestowed  upon  it,  at  different  periods,  very  con¬ 
siderable  encouragement.  In  particular,  every  British  ves¬ 
sel  bound  for  the  whale  fishery  and  duly  qualified  according 
to  the  act,  obtained  a  license  to  proceed  on  such  voyage, 
and  on  her  return,  the  master  and  mate  making  oath  that 
they  proceeded  on  such  voyage,  and  no  other,  and  used  all 
their  endeavours  to  take  whales,  See.  also  that  all  the  blub¬ 
ber,  fins,  &c.  imported  in  their  ship  were  taken  by  the  crew, 
there  was  allowed  40s.  for  each  ton  according  to  the  admea¬ 
surement  of  the  ship.  It  was  afterwards  found  however, 
that  so  great  an  encouragement  was  not  necessary,  and  in 
1786  the  bounty  was  reduced  to  30s.  The  number  of  ships 
employed  said  year  in  the  whale  fishery,  to  Davis’s  straits 
and  the  Greenland  seas,  amounted  to  one  hundred  and  thirty- 
nine  from  England,  and  fifteen  from  Scotland.  The  reduc¬ 
tion  took  place  in  1787,  and  notwithstanding  it,  the  trade 
increased.  The  number  of  ships  employed  the  same  year 
from  England  amounting  to  two  hundred  and  seventeen, 
and  in  the  year  1788,^  to  two  hundred  and  twenty-two 
vessels. 

The  face  of  things  particularly  changed  when  the  seas  of 
North  America  came  into  the  possession  of  the  English,  who 
now  may  be  considered  the  first  nation  in  the  whale  as  well 
as  other  kinds  of  fisheries.  The  whale  fishery  is  carried 
on  there  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  adjacent  lati¬ 
tudes.  These  seas  are  less  tempestuous,  and  less  embarrassed 
with  ice  than  those  of  Greenland ;  accordingly  it  begins  sooner 
and  ends  later.  The  ships  employed  for  the  purpose  are 
smaller  and  have  less  numerous  crews.  These  reasons  must 
give  to  the  American  continent  advantages,  which  the  eco¬ 
nomy  of  the  Dutch  will  never  be  able  to  balance. 


345 


,  *  '  jfc 

Irx  the  (Greenland  whale  fishery,  when  the  fat  is  all  got 
off  from  the  whale,  it  is  cut  in  small  pieces,  and  put  up  in  tubs 
In  the  hold,  cramming  them  very  "full  and;  close;  and  when 
the  ships  get  home,  this  fat  is  boiled  and  melted  down  into 
Train  oil.  In  the  South  Sea  fishery  the  ,faUis  boiled  on 
board  the  ships,  as  the  fish  are  caught. 

Greenland  oil  is  purer  than  Southern  oil,  and  fit  for  dif¬ 
ferent  purposes  where  the  latter  will;  not  atiswer;  it  is  on  that 
account  generally  worth  four  and  five  pounds  per  ton  more. 

The  Seal  is  a  native  of  the  North  seas;  it  is  an  amphibious 
animal  with  four  feet,  and  called  Ah  many  places  the  sea- 
calf,  or  sea- wolf.  Its  fat,  which  is  near  four  inches  thick, 
is  converted  into  Train  oil,  and  the  Train  which  drops 
from  that  blubber,  is  not  more  rancid,  than  stale  oil  of  olives. 

Train-oil  is  used  by  leather  dressers,  soap  boilers,  for 
burning,  See. 

TURKEY  MADDER  ROOTS;  see  Madder. 


TURMERIC. 


F.  Curcuma ,  Terre  merite . 

G.  Kurkuma. 

D.  Kurkuma . 

I.  Curcuma. 

S.  Curcuma . 

P.  Curcuma ,  Acafrao  da  In¬ 
dia. 


DA.  Gur gurney e. 

SW,  Gurkmaja. 

POL.  Sxafranica ,  Ostrzyz 
indyyski. 

R.  Kurkuma. 

L.  Curcuma,  Terra  merit  a. 


The  curcuma  longa,  or  Turmeric  plant,  is  a  shrub  grow¬ 
ing  in  the  East  Indies;  it  bears  a  purple  red  flower,  succeeded 
by  a  capsule  which  prickles  like  a  chesnut,  containing  a  num¬ 
ber  of  seeds.  The  root  bears  a  great  resemblance  to  ginger, 
and  in  the  East  Indies  enters  in  almost  every  dish;  with  us 
it  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  dying  yellow,  sometimes  also 
by  apothecaries. 


TURPENTINE. 


F.  Terebenlhine. 

G.  Ter  pent  in, 

D.  Terpentyn. 

I.  Tremcntina. 

S.  Trementina . 
P.  Terebenthina . 


DA.  Ter  pent  in. 
SW.  Terpentin. 
POL.  Terpentyna . 
R.  Skipidar. 

L.  Terebenthina. 


The  true  Turpentine  tree  is  found  in  Spain  and  the  sou¬ 
thern  parts  of  France,  as  well  as  in  the  island  of  Chio  and 

X  x0 


346 


in  the  Indies.  It  is  a  middling  sized  evergreen  tree,  with 
leaves  like  those  of  the  bay,  bearing  purplish  imperfect  flow¬ 
ers;  and  on  separate  pedicles,  hard  undtuous  berries  like 
those  of  juniper.  It  is  extremely  resinous,  and  unless  the 
resin  is  discharged  it  decays,  produces  fungous  excrescences, 
swells,  bursts,  and  dies;  the  prevention  of  which  consists 
wholly  in  plentiful  bleeding,  both  in  the  trunk  and  branches. 
The  juice  is  the  Chio  or  Cyprus  Turpentine  of  the  shops.  This 
sort  is  quite  of  thick  consistence,  of  a  greenish  whitish 
colour,  clear  and  transparent,  and  of  scarcely  any  taste  or 
smell. 

The  kind,  now  called  Venice  Turpentine ,  is  no  other  than 
a  mixture  of  eight  parts  of  common  yellow  or  black  rosin, 
with  five  parts  of  oil  of  Turpentine.  What  was  originally 
Venice  Turpentine,  is  now  unknown. 

The  Strasburg  Turpentine  is  extracted  from  the  silver 
fir. 


The  common  Turpentine  is  prepared  from  different  sorts 
of  the  pine,  and  is  quite  thick,  white  and  opaque.  Even 
this  is  often  counterfeited  by  mixtures  of  rosin  and  common 
expressed  oils. 

The  process  of  making  Turpentine  is  very  familiar.  In 
the  spring,  when  the  sap  is  most  free  in  running,  they  pare 
off  the  bark  of  the  pine  tree,  to  make  the  sap  run  down  in 
a  hole  at  the  bottom,  which  they  cut  to  receive  it.  In  the 
way  as  it  runs  it  leaves  a  white  matter,  like  cream,  but  a 
little  thicker.  This  is  very  different  from  all  the  kinds  of 
rosin  and  Turpentine  in  use,  and  it  is  generally  sold,  to  be 
used  in  the  making  of  flambeaux,  instead  of  white  bees  wax. 
The  matter  that  is  received  in  the  hole  at  the  bottom  is 
taken  up  with  ladles,  and  put  into  a  large  basket.  A  great 
part  of  this  immediately  runs  through,  and  is  the  common 
Turpentine.  It  is  received  into  stone  or  earthen  pots,  and 
is  ready  for  sale.  When  Turpentine  is  distilled,  or  boiled 
with  water  till  it  becomes  solid,  it  appears  yellowish;  when 
the  process  is  further  continued,  of  a  reddish  brown  colour : 
in  the  first  state  it  is  called  boiled  Turpentine,  and  in  the 
latter  Colophony  or  Rosin. 

Turpentine  is  much  used  by  farriers,  and  for  various  other 
purposes. 


TURQUOISE  ;  see  Copper. 


V  ALONE  A, 


F.  A<velanede.  I.  Vallonea ,  Valonia. 

G.  Acker  doppen.  L.  Valonece . 

D.  Aker  doppen* 


Valonea  is  the  husks  of  the  acorn  generally  mixed  with 
that  fruit;  though  this  diminishes  its  value.  It  is  brought 
to  us  from  Italy  and  the  Levant,  and  used  as  a  dying  in¬ 
gredient. 


VANILLA. 


F.  Vanille. 

G.  Vanilje. 

D.  Eanilje. 

1.  Vainiglia. 

S.  Vainilla ,  Vainica. 
P.  V ainilba,  Baonilha . 


DA.  Vaniller. 
SW.  Baniller. 
POL.  B anile . 
R.  Banila. 

L.  Vanilla. 


Vanilla  in  commerce,  is  the  pod  of  a  species  of  epiden- 
drum,  which  is  brought  to  us  entire,  and  with  the  seeds  in 
it,  being  usually  about  five  or  six  inches  long,  and  half  an 
inch  broad,  and  containing  an  almost  innumerable  quantity 
of  minute  and  glossy  black  seeds. 

The  Vanilla  plant  is  a  native  of  "Mexico,  where,  like  the 
ivy,  it  grows  to  the  trees  it  meets  with,  covers  them  almost 
entirely,  and  raises  itself  by  their  aid.  Its  stem,  of  the 
thickness  of  the  little  finger,  is  greenish,  fleshy,  almost  cy¬ 
lindrical,  knotty  at  intervals,  and  sarmentose  as  that  of  the 
vine.  Each  knot  is  furnished  with  an  alternate  leaf,  rather 
thick,  of  an  oval  shape,  eight  inches  long  and  three  broad. 
It  also  pushes  forth  roots,  which,  penetrating  the  bark  of 
the  trees,  extract  a  sufficient  degree  of  nourishment,  to  sup¬ 
port  the  plant  for  some  time  in  vigour,  when  by  accident 
the  bottom  of  the  stem  happens  to  be  damaged,  or  even 
separated  from  the  principal  root.  The  flowers  are  in  clus¬ 
ters,  rather  large,  white  on  the  inside,  and  greenish  with¬ 
out;  they  produce  a  fleshy  fruit  formed  like  a  pod,  of  seven 
or  eight  inches  long,  and  opening  into  three  valves,  loaded 
with  small  seeds. 


348 


This  plant  grows  naturally  in  uncultivated  lands  that  are 
always  damp,  sometimes  under  water,  and  covered  with 
large  trees.  In  order  to  multiply  it,  it  is  sufficient  to  plant 
at  the  foot  of  the  tree  some  branches  or  twigs,  which  take 
root,  and  rise  up  in  a  short  time.  Some  cultivators  to  pre- 
serye  their  plants  from  rotting,  prefer  the  fastening  of  them 
to  trees,  as  they  soon  throw  out  filaments  which  descend  to 
the  ground,  and  form  roots  there. 

This  plant  produces  but  one  crop  of  fruit  in  a  year,  which 
is  commonly  ripe  towards  the  end  of  September,  or  rather 
fit  for  gathering;  for  it  is  not  suffered  to  remain  till  perfect¬ 
ly  mature,  because  it  is  then  not  so  fit  for  use.  The  pods 
grow  in  pairs,  are  generally  the  thickness  of  a  child’s  finger, 
green  at  first,  then  yellowish,  and  turning  to  a  brownish 
cast,  when  completely  ripe.  When  it  is  about  half  changed 
yellow,  it  is  esteemed  better  for  gathering,  than  when  chan¬ 
ged  to  a  brown  colour,  at  which  time  it  splits  and  discloses 
its  seeds. 

The  aromatic  odour  that  is  peculiar  to  them  cannot  be  ob¬ 
tained  without  preparation.  •  This  preparation  consists  in 
threading  several  pods,  and  dipping  them  for  a  moment  in  a 
caldron  of  boiling  water  to  whiten  them.  They  are  after¬ 
wards  suspended  in  a  place  exposed  to  the  open  air,  and  to 
the  rays  of  the  sun.  A  thick  and  plentiful  liquor  then  dis¬ 
tils  from  their  extremity,  the  exit  of  which  is  facilitated  by  a 
slight  pressure,  repeated  two  or  three  times  in  the  course  of 
the  day.  In  order  to  retard  the  drying,  which  ought  to  go 
on  slowly,  they  are  rubbed  over  at  several  different  times 
with  oil,  which  preserves  their  suppleness,  and  keeps  them 
from  inse&s.  They  are  also  tied  round  with  a  cotton  thread 
to  prevent  them  from  opening.  When  they  are  sufficiently 
dried  they  are  rubbed  with  the  hands,  anointed  with  oil,  and 
put  into  a  pot  that  is  varnished,  in  order  to  keep  them  fresh. 
In  some  parts  after  gathering,  as  before  mentioned,  they 
scald  the  pods  in  the  following  liquor:  viz.  a  brine  is  made 
with  salt  and  water  strong  enough  to  bear  an  egg.  To  this 
are  added  a  fourth  part  of  chamber-lye,  and  a  small  quanti¬ 
ty  of  quicklime:  these  are  boiled  together  for  half  an  hour 
and  then  taken  off.  The  Vanillas  are  put  into  this  liquor  un¬ 
til  thoroughly  scalded,  then  taken  out  and  dried  in  the 
shade.  When  fit  for  market  they  are  put  up,  from  fifty  to 
one  hundred  and  fifty  in  little  bags. 

Vanilla  is  used  in  the  manufadtury  of  chocolate,  likewise  to 
perfume  snuffs  and  other  substances. 

Only  fifty  quintals  of  it  are  annually  brought  to  Europe. 
It  is  found  wild  in  many  parts  of  Jamaica,  but  makes  none 
of  the  exports  from  thefiee. 


349 


VERDIGRISE. 

P.  Verdete y  Verdegrisy  Car • 
dinilho. 

D  A .  Spansk  grout . 

SVV.  Spansk  grona . 

POL.  Gryizpan. 

R.  Jar. 

L.  Aerugo ,  Viridc  avis. 

Verdigrise  is  copper  converted  into  a  green  calx  by  vinous 
acid.  It  is  much  used  by  painters  as  a  green  colour,  and 
chiefly  manufactured  at  Montpelier;  the  vines  of  Languedoc 
being  very  convenient  for  that  purport. 

The  following  is  the  process  used  at  Montpelier  for  ma¬ 
king  the  Verdigrise. 

Vine  stalks,  well  dried  in  the  sun,  are  put  into  earthen 
pots,  and  upon  them  wine  is  poured.  The  pots  being  fully 
covered,  the  wine  then  undergoes  the  acetous  fermentation, 
which  in  summer  is  finished  in  seven  or  eight  days.  When 
the  fermentation  is  sufficiently  advanced,  the  stalks  are  taken 
out  of  the  pots,  and  being  by  this  method  impregnated  with 
all  the  acid  of  the  wine,  the  remaining  liquor  is  but  a  very 
weak  vinegar.  The  stalks  well  drained,  are  put  in  earthen 
pots,  in  alternate  layers  with  plates  of  copper.  The  copper 
is  thus  left  to  the  ad'ion  of  the  vinegar  for  three  or  four  days, 
or  more;  in  which  time  the  plates  become  covered  with 
Verdigrise.  The  plates  are  then  taken  out  of  the  pots  and 
left  in  the  cellar  three  or  four  days;  when  they  are  moistened 
with  water,  or  with  the  weak  vinegar  above  mentioned,  and 
left  to  dry.  When  this  moistening  and  drying  of  the  plates 
has  been  thrice  repeated,  the  Verdigrise  will  be  found  to 
have  considerably  increased  in  quantity;  and  it  may  then  be 
scraped  off*  for  sale. 

To  discover  the  method  of  procuring  this  substance  could 
not  be  difficult,  as  copper  contrads  a  green  rust  oftener  than 
wished  for,  when  in  the  least  exposed  to  acids.  The  anci¬ 
ents  for  this  purpose  used  their  vessels  and  plates  of  copper, 
or  only  shavings  and  filings,  and  the  acid  they  employed, 
was  either  the  sourest  vinegar  or  the  sour  remains,  left  when 
they  made  wine:  such  as  grapes  become  sour,  or  the  stalks 
and  skins  after  the  juice  had  been  pressed  from  them.  Some¬ 
times  the.  copper  was  only  exposed  to  the  vapour  of  vinegar 
in  close  vessels,  sometimes  immersed  in  it,  sometimes  cop¬ 
per  filings  were  pounded  with  vinegar  in  a  copper  mortar, 
till  they  were  changed  in  the  wished  for  green  calx. 


F.  Verd-de-gris,  Verdet . 

G.  Grurtipariy 

D.  Spaansch  groen. 

I.  Verderame . 

S.  Cardenillo,  Verdet &y  Ver¬ 
de -gr  is. 


350 


It  appears  that  the  greater  part  of  the  Verdigrise  in  ancient 
times  was  made  in  Cyprus,  which  was  celebrated  for  its  cop¬ 
per  works,  and  in  the  island  of  Rhodes. 

The  most  saleable  natural  Verdigrise  is  collected  in  Hun¬ 
gary.  The  clear  water  which  runs  from  old  copper  works  is 
put  into  large  vessels,  and  after  sometime,  the  green  earth 
falls  to  the  bottom  as  a  sediment. 

The  trade  which  Montpelier  formerly  carried  on  in  Ver¬ 
digrise,  has  of  late  very  much  decayed.  Between  the  year 
1748  and  1755,  from  nine  to  ten  thousand  quintals  were 
manufactured  annually,  by  which  the  proprietors  had  a  clear 
profit  of  50,000  crowns;  but  a  sudden  change  seems  to  have 
taken  place,  for  in  1759  the  quantity  manufactured  was  es¬ 
timated  at  only  three  thousand  quintals,  which  gave  a  neat 
profit  of  no  more  than  935  crowns.  Other  nations,  who  till 
that  period  had  consumed  at  least  three  fourths  of  the  French 
Verdigrise,  have  partly  succeeded  in  their  attempts  of  manu¬ 
facturing  it  at  home,  and  the  use  of  this  substance  seems  to 
have  greatly  lessened. 

Verdigrise  besides  its  use  in  painting,  is  also  employed 
externally  in  medicine,  for  deterging  foul  ulcers,  and  as  an 
escharotic. 

In  commerce  there  is  a  kind  of  this  substance  known  un¬ 
der  the  name  of  distilled  Verdigrise,  which  properly,  is  no¬ 
thing  else  than  Verdigrise  purified,  and  somewhat  crystal¬ 
lized  by  being  dissolved  in  vinegar. 


VERDITER. 


P.  Verdemontanha  azuL 
D  A .  B'tergblaat. 

SW.  Bergblatt. 

R.  Golubez,  Meanaia  lazur. 
L.  Cteruleum  montanum . 


F.  Cendres  bleues. 

G.  Bergblatt . 

D.  Bergblaau<vj. 

I,  Azzurro  di  vtontagna. 
S.  Verdetierra . 


Verditer  is  a  kind  of  mineral  substance,  sometimes  used 
by  painters  for  a  blue;  but  more  usually  mixed  with  yellow 
ior  a  green  colour. 

Verditer,  according  to  Savory,  ought  to  be  made  of  lapis 
armenus,  or  at  least  of  an  earthy  substance  much  like  it, 
brought  from  the  mountains  of  Hungary,  &c.  only  prepared 
by  powdering  it  and  cleansing  it  by  lotion. 

But  this  stone  being  very  scarce,  the  Verditer  commonly 
used,  is  not  native,  but  a  factitious  substance,  and  the  me¬ 
thod  of  making  it  in  England,  is  as  follows:  the  refiners 
pour  their  copper  water  into  whiting,  stirring  them  well  to¬ 
gether  every  day  for  some  hours,  till  the  water  grows  pale; 


351 


then  they  pour  that  off,  and  pour  on  more  of  the  green  wa¬ 
ter,  repeating  this  till  the  Verditer  is  made,  which  then  they 
take  out,  and  lay  on  large  pieces  of  chalk  in  the  sun  to  dry. 
The  copper  water  by  this  process  deposites  its  particles  of 
copper  with  the  spirit  of  vitriol,  in  the  chalk. 

VERMILION. 


F.  Vermilion . 

G.  Vermiljon . 
D.  Vermiljoen . 
I.  Vermiglione. 


S.  Vermilion. 

P.  V ermelhao. 
DA.  Vermillion , 
SW.  Vermilion. 


Vermilion  is  a  very  bright,  beautiful  red  colour,  in  great 
esteem  among  the  Ancients.  It  is  either  native  or  factitious. 
The  natural  Vermilion  is  found  in  some  silver  mines,  in  the 
form  of  a  ruddy  sand,  which  is  afterwards  prepared  and  pu¬ 
rified  by  several  lotions  and  coCtions.  The  artificial  is  made 
of  mineral  cinnabar,  ground  up  with  aqua  vitae  and  urine, 
and  afterwards  dried.  See  Cinnabar. 

We  have  two  kinds  of  Vermilion  from  Holland,  the  one 
of  a  deep  red,  the  other  pale;  which  difference  only  proceeds 
from  the  cinnabars  being  more  or  less  ground.  When  the 
cinnabar  is  finely  ground  the  Vermilion  is  pale,  and  this  is 
preferred  to  that  which  is  coarser  and  redder. 

It  is  of  very  great  use  with  painters  in  oil  and  miniature, 
and  among  the  ladies,  to  heighten  the  bloom  of  their  com¬ 
plexion.  See  Kermes . 


F.  Vinaigre • 

G.  Essig. 

D.  Azyn. 

I.  Aceto . 

S.  Vinagre . 
P.  Vinagre . 


VINEGAR. 

DA.  Aeddike. 
SW.  Attika. 
POL.  Ocet . 
R.  Ukzus. 

L.  Ace  turn. 


Vinegar  is  an  acid  penetrating  liquor,  prepared  from  wine, 
cyder,  beer,  See.  of  considerable  use,  both  as  a  medicine 
and  in  the  kitchen. 

Vinegar  can  be  made  in  a  cheap  manner  from  refuse  and 
other  materials,  which  are  frequently  thrown  away  as  use¬ 
less.  Such  are  the  husks  of  grapes,  decayed  raisins,  the 
lees  of  wine,  grounds  of  ale,  beer.  See.  all  our  summer 
fruits  in  England,  even  blackberries;  all  the  refuse  washings 
pf  a  sugar  house,  cyder  pressings,  and  the  like;  all  these 


'  352 

ingredients  will  make  Vinegar,  with  the  aid  of  water,  the 
open  air,  and  warmth. 

The  process  of  turning  similar  vegetable  matters,  for  ex¬ 
ample  the  skins  of  raisins,  intov  Vinegar,  is  as  follows.  Take 
the  skins  of  raisins  after  they  have  been  used  in  making 
wine,  and  pour  three  or  four  times  their  own  quantity  of 
boiling  water  over  them,  so  as  to  make  a  thin  aqueous  mix¬ 
ture.  Then  set  the  containing  task  loosely  covered  in  a 
warmer  place  than  is  used  for  vinous  fermentation,  and  the 
liquor  in  a  few  weeks  time  will  become  a  clear  and  sound 
Vinegar*,  which  being  drawn  off  from  its  sediment,  and  pre¬ 
served  in  another  cask  well  stopped  down  will  continue  per¬ 
fect  and  fit  for  use. 

Method  of  making  cyder  Vinegar.  The  cyder,  the  meanest 
of  which  will  serve  the  purpose,  is  first  to  be  drawn  off  fine 
into  another  vessel,  and  a  quantity  of  the  must  or  pouz  of 
apples  to  be  added.  The  whole  is  set  in  the  sun,  if  there 
be  a  conveniency  for  the  purpose;  and  at  a  week  or  nine  days 
end,  it  may  be  drawn  off. 

To  make  beer  Vinegar ,  take  a  middling  sort  of  beer,  indif¬ 
ferently  well  hopped;  into  which,  when  it  has  worked  well, 
and  is  grown  fine,  put  some  husks  of  grapes,  and  mash  them 
together  in  a  tub,  then  letting  it  settle,  draw  off  the  liquid 
part,  and  set  it  in  the  sun;  the  bung  being  slightly  covered. 
In  about  thirty  or  forty  days  it  will  be  a  good  Vinegar. 

To  make  wine  Vinegary  any  sort  of  vinous  liquor  being 
mixed  with  its  own  faeces,  and  its  own  tartar  first  reduced  to 
powder,  and  the  whole  being  kept  frequently  stirring  in  a 
vessel  which  has  formerly  held  Vinegar,  or  set  in  a  warm 
place  full  of  the  steams  of  the  same,  will  begin  to  ferment 
anew,  and  by  degrees  turn  into  Vinegar. 

The  remote  subje&s  of  acetous  fermentation  are  the  same 
with  those  of  vinous;  but  the  immediate  subjects  of  it  are  all 
kinds  of  vegetable  juices,  after  they  have  once  undergone 
that  fermentation  which  reduces  them  to  wine;  for  it  is  ab¬ 
solutely  impossible  to  make  Vinegar  of  must,  the  acute  juice 
of  grapes,  or  other  ripe  fruits,  without  the  previous  assist¬ 
ance  of  vinous  fermentation.  The  proper  ferments  for  this 
operation,  whereby  Vinegar  is  prepared  are:  1 ,  The  faeces  of 
all  acid  wines;  2,  the  lees  of  Vinegar;  3,  pulverised  tartar; 
4,  Vinegar  itself;  5,  a  wooden  vessel,  well  drenched  with 
Vinegar;'  G,  wine  that  has  often  been  mixed  with  its  own 
faeces;  7,  the  twigs  of  vines  and  the  stalks  of  grapes,  cur¬ 
rants,  and  all  vegetables  of  an  acid  austere  taste;  8,  bakers 
leaven  when  turned  sour. 


353 


ULTRAMARINE. 


F.  D'Outremcr . 

G.  Ultramar  in. 
D.  Ultramaryn . 
J .  Oltramarino . 
S.  Ultramar. 


A  T 1 !t  r  .'yrfj 


POL.  Ultramaryna. 
R.  Ultramartn. 

L .  U It  ram  a  i  • in  am . 


P.  Azul  d'ultramarinko. 

Ultramarine  is  a  very  fine  blue  powder,  almost  of  the  co¬ 
lour  of  the  corn  flower,  or  blue  bottle,  which  has  this  uncom¬ 
mon  property,  that  when  exposed  'to  the  air  or  a  moderate 
heat,  it  neither  fades  nor  becomes  tarnished.  On  this  ac¬ 
count  it  is  used  in  painting-,  but  it  was  employed  formerly 
for  that  purpose,  .much  more  than  at  present;  as  smalts,  a 
far  cheaper  article,  was  not  then  known.  It  is  made  of  the 
blue  parts  of  the  lapis  lazuli ,  by  separating  them  as  much  as 
possible  from  the  other  coloured  particles  with  which  they 
are  mixed,  and  reducing  them  to  a  fine  powder. 

On  account  of  the  scarcity  and  great  value  of  the  lapis 
lazuli  other  stones  somewhat  like  it  only  in  colour,  have 
been  substituted  in  its  stead;  and  Ultramarine  of  course  is  not 
always  what  it  ought  to  be.  Good  Ultramarine  must  be  of  a 
beautiful  dark  colour,  and  free  from  sand,  as  well  as  every 
other  mixture.  It  must  unite  readily  with  oil,  not  become 
tarnished  on  a  red  hot  tile,  or  plate  of  iron,  and  it  ought  to 
dissolve  in  strong  acids,  almost  like  the  zeolite,  without  Cau¬ 
sing  an  effervescence.  In  the  year  1763  an  ounce  of  it  at 
Paris  cost  four  pounds  sterling,  and  an  ounce  of  cendre  d’ou- 
tremer,  which  is  the  refuse,  two  pounds. 

Ultramarine,  it  appears  must  have  been  common  about  the 
end  of  the  fifteenth  century.  In  the  first  half  of  the  six¬ 
teenth  century,  Vanuccio  Biringoccio  gave  directions  for 
preparing  the  real  Ultramarine,  which  he  distinguishes  with 
sufficient  accuracy  from  copper  azur.  In  the  beginning  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  the  father  of  the  celebrated  Giamba- 
ista  Pigna,  an  apothecary  at  Modena,  acquired  great  riches 


Y  v 


354 


by  possessing  the  secret  of  making  the  best  Ultramarine. 
Alexius  Pedemontanus  in  his  book  De  Secretis,  seems  to 
have  been  the  first  author  who  in  the  beginning  of  the  six¬ 
teenth  century  gave  a  proper  account  of  Ultramarine. 


UMBER,  UMBRE. 


F.  Ombre. 

G.  Umhra . 

D.  Umbra. 

I.  Umbria  y  Terra  dy Ombre. 
S.  Sombra. 

P.  Terra  sombra. 


DA.  Umbra . 
SW.  Umbra. 
POL.  Umbra. 
R.  Umbra. 

L.  Umbra . 


Umber  is  a  fossil,  of  brown  or  blackish  colour,  used  in 
painting*  so  called  from  Umbria,  the  ancient  name  of  the 
dutchy  of  Spoleto  in  Italy,  whence  it  was  first  obtained. 
Diluted  with  water  it  serves  to  make  a  dark  brown  colour, 
usually  called  with  us  hair  colour. 

Dr.  Hill,  and  Mr.  da  Costa,  consider  it  as  an  earth  of  the 
ochre  kind.  It  is  found  in  Egypt,  Italy,  Spain,  and  Germa¬ 
ny;  in  Cyprus  also,  it  is  found  in  large  quantities;  but  what 
we  have  brought  into  England  is  principally  from  different 
parts  of  the  Turkish  dominions. 


355 


WAX,  BEES  WAX. 


DA.  Vox-. 

SW.  Vax . 

POL.  Wash 
R.  Wosk. 

L.  Cera. 

The  substance  wherewith  the  bees  make  their  combs  is 
gathered  from  the  stamina  of  flowers.  It  is  very  common  to 
see  bees  sitting  upon  flowers  with  their  bodies  all  over  pow¬ 
der.  They  take  care  to  clean  themselves  of  this  powder  with 
the  brushes  of  their  feet,  and  to  make  it  into  two  small  balls, 
which  they  place  in  the  two  triangular  cavities  of  their  hind¬ 
er  legs.  Some  of  these  balls  are  yellow,  some  red,  others 
green,’  &c.  according  to  the  colour  of  the  flower  dust.  This 
substance  however  does  not  become  Wax  till  it  has  been 
eaten  and  transformed  by  the  bee.  It  is  said  that  the  second, 
stomach  is  the  organ  by  which  this  powder  is  altered,  and 
changed  into  real  Wax,  and  is  thrown  out  again  through  the 
same  passage  that  it  went  in.  It  is  observable,  that  the  bees 
extract  but  a  small  quantity  of  real  Wax  out  of  the  powder 
which  they  gather,  the  residue  serving  to  feed  them.  It  is 
with  this  sort  of  paste  that  they  build  their  combs*,  and 
when  dry  it  becomes  the  substance  named  Bees-Wax.  Every 
comb,  newly  made  is  white;  but  they  become  yellowish  as 
they  grow  old,  and  at  last  almost  black.  But  all  combs  do 
not  furnish  Wax  equally  white,  as  is  well  known  to  those 
whose  business  it  is  to  blanch  it. 

As  it  is  necessary  for  bees  to  make  a  provision  of  rough 
Wax,  there  is  in  every  hive  a  pretty  large  portion  of  the 
combs,  whose  cells  are  filled  with  nothing  but  Wax,,  and 
like  so  many  little  magazines,  where  the  bees  go  to  deposite 
their  little  balls,  one  after  another,  while  other  bees  take 
care  to  knead,  press,  and  lay  them  in  order.  The  provi¬ 
sions  of  undigested  Wax  which  some  have  cafled  bee- bread, 
serve  them  in  winter  to  feed  upon. 

Yellow  Wax  should  always  be  of  a  good  consistence, 
fine  colour,  and  of  a  pleasant  smell.  The  French  consi¬ 
der  that  made  in  Champagne  to  be  the  best.  It  contains 


F.  Crre. 

G,  Wacks: 
D.  Wasch . 
1.  Cera. 

S.  Cera. 

P.  Cera. 


356 


sr  great  deal  of  essential  or  acid  salt  and  phlegm,  with  a 
small  quantity  of  oil  And  earth.  The  white  Wax  contains 
the  same  principles,  only  not  quite  so  much  salt. 

Virgin  Wax  is  that  which  is  made  without  the  help  of 
fire,  and  is  only  a  preparation  of  the  yellow,  which  must  be 
melted,  washed  several  times  in  water,  divided  into  pieces, 
laid  upon  linen  cloth,  and  so  exposed  to  the  sun  for  six 
weeks  or  two  months,  till  it  becomes  white.  That  which  is 
very  white,  clear,  transparent,  hard,  brittle,  tasteless,  and 
not  sticking  to  the  teeth  when  chewed,  is  reckoned  the  best. 

In  Russia,  and  in  America,  there  is  sometimes  found  in 
the  trunks  of  old  trees  a  sort  of  black  Wax,  in  round  bits, 
of  the  size  of  a  nutmeg.  This  is  produced  by  a  small  kind 
of  bees,  and  when  heated  has  a  smell  like  balm;  the  Ame¬ 
ricans  make  candles  of  it.  • 

Wax  is  seldom  used  inwardly  in  medicine,  but  enters  into 
many  compositions  of  outward  applications.  It  is  a  particu¬ 
larly  valuable  article  in  hot  countries,  where  tallow  is  too 
soft  to  make  candles  with. 

The  yellow  Wax  used  in  this  country  principally  comes 
from  Poland  and  Russia.  Upper  Egypt  produces  large  quan¬ 
tities  of  this  article. 


WEED-ASHES. 

$ 

'  F.  Vedas  se ,  Quedasse.  DA.  Veedaske . 

G.  Waidasche.  SW.  Veedaska . 

D.  Weeddicb y  Weedas. 

Weed-ashes  are  a  kind  of  wood  ashes  not  lixiviated,  but 
repeatedly  wetted  with  the  lye  of , wood-ashes,  and  calcined 
to  a  degree  so  as  to  .vitrify;  on'  this  account  it  is  difficult  to 
extract  their  salt. 

Weed-ashes  are  particularly  used  by  dyers,  and  come  from 
Poland,  and  other  parts. 

WELD;  DYERS  WEED,  YELLOW  WEED. 


F.  Gaudey  Herbe  a  jaunir . 

G.  Wauy  Waude.  ■ 

D.  Wou<vOy  Wowvje. 

1.  Guadarellay  Guado  mi  nor  e, 
Erba  guada. 

S.  Guala  i. 


P.  Gaudat  Hew  a  gauda. 
DA.  Vau. 

SW.  Vauy  Gaude. 

POL.  Farbonvnik . 

R.  Won. 

L.  Reseda  luteola. 


The  Weld  or  Would  plant,  or  reseda  luteola  of  Linnaeus, 
grows  spontaneously  in  most  of  the  southern  parts  of  Europe, 


and  in  the  Levant.  It  is  a  stalky  plant,  which  in  France  is 
ripe  in  June  and  July,  when  it.  is  collected  and  made  up  in 
bundles  for  shipping.  The  smaller  yellow  Weld  is  preferred 
to  that  which  is  larger  and  greenish. 

The  use  of  this  plant  in  dying  yellow,  has  decreased  in 
Great  Britain,  since  the  discovery  of  the  superior  qualities  of 
the  quercitron  bark.  The  latter,  if  of  fine  quality,  yielding 
about  ten  times  as  much  colour,  as  the  best  Weld,  and 
producing  all  the  colours  and  effects  to  be  produced  by  the 
Weld  plant."' 

WHALEFINS,  whalebone. 


F.  F  annons  de  Baleine. 

G.  Wallfiscbbarden,  Fischle 

in. 

D.  Balein,  Balyn,  W alviscb- 
bein. 

I.  Osso  di  Ballena. . 

S.  Ballenas  Palo  de  Cot  ilia. 


F.  Osso  de  Bale  a. 

DA.  Fisktleen ,  H<valjiskeleen < 
SW.  Fiskben.  ‘ 

POL.  Fiszbin. 

R.  Us  sit  kitonviie . 

L.  Fes  turn,  Costa  Sartor  la. 


What  is  called  Whalebone,  adheres  to  the  upper  jaw  of 
the  whale,  and  is  formed  of  thin  parallel  laminae,  some  of  the 
longest  four  yards  in  length.  Of  these  there  are  commonly 
three  hundred  and  fifty  on  each-  side,  but  in  very  old  fish 
more;  about  five  hundred  of  them  are  of  a  length  fit  for  use* 
the  others' being  too  short. 


WHALE  OIL;  see  Train  Oil. 


WHEAT. 


F. .  Froment. 

G.  Weivcen. 

D.  Tar^w. 

1.  GranOy  fromenio . 
S.  Trigo . 

P.  Trigo . 


DA,  Huede. 
SW.  H-vede . 
POL.  Pszenica. 
R.  *  Pscheniza. 
L.  Fromentutn. 


Linnaeus  comprehends  the  different  kinds  of  Wheat  culti¬ 
vated  at  present  under  six  species;  but  cultivation  has  pro¬ 
duced  a  great  many  varieties  from  these. 

1.  Triticum  aestivum,  or  spring  Wheat;  2.  Triticum  hy* 
bernum,  winter  or  common  Wheat;  3.  Triticum  turgidum, 
thick  spiked,  or' cone  Wheat;  4.  Triticum  polonicum,  or 
Polish  Wheat,  similar  to  the  turgidum;  5.' Triticum  spelta, 


3  53 


spelt,  or  German  "Wheat;  6.  Tntictim  monococcum,  St. 
Peter’s  corn  or  one  grained  Wheat. 

Amongst  these  six  species,  the  triticum  hybernum,  (winter 
or  common  Wheat)  principally  or  only  deserves  our  notice. 
Of  what  country  it  be  a  native,  c-annot  now  be  determined. 
The  grain  is  rather  plumper  than  the  summer  Wheat,  and 
is  cultivated  ini  most  parts  of  Europe.  The  principal  com 
countries  froih  whence  we  draw  our  supply  in  war  times, 
and  in  case  of  a  deficiency  of  our  own  crops,  are  Poland, 
Prussia,  Russia,  Germany,  Zeeland,  the  coast  of  Barbary, 
and  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea. 

North  America  produces  a  considerable  quantity  of  Wheat, 
but  the  Americans  are  in  the  habit  of  reducing  it  in  flower, 
and  to  export  it  in  that  state. 

The  Zeeland  Wheat  approaches  nearest  in  quality  to  our 
full  grained  English  white  Wheat,  then  follow  the  high  mix¬ 
ed  and  then  the  mixed  Wheats  of  Poland.  The  red  Wheat 
growing  in  the  latter  country  is  similar  to  the  red  Wheat 
coming  from  Germany;  but  the  Russian  red  Wheat  is  .of 
an  inferior  quality. 

A  lean,  hard  kind,  of  red  Wheat  grows  in  Barbary,  and 
also  on  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea.  The  crops  in  the  latter 
districts  are  so  plentiful,  that  it  is  usual  to  allow  one  half  to 
the  reapers  by  way  of  wages. 

It  seems  now  beyond  dispute,  that  in  war  times,  when 
the  consumption  of  corn  is  considerably  increased,  Great 
Britain  does  not  produce  a  sufficiency  of  Wheat  for  her 
own  use. 

WI-IITE  CINNAMON;  see  Cortex  Winteranus . 
WHITE-LEAD,  ceruse. 


F.  Ceru:e>  Chaux  de  plomb . 

G.  Bley  <weiss  % 

D.  Locdwit.  ■ 

I.  Biacca. 

S.  d Ik  ay  aide. 

P.  dlbaiade.- 


D  A .  Blyehnjidt. 

SW.  Blyh-vitt. 

POL.  Bielidlo ,  Bley  was, 
R.  Bjelilu. . 

L.  Certisa. 


If  lead  is  exposed  to  the  vapours  of  warm  vinegar  it  is 
corroded  into  a  kind  of  calx,  which  is  used  in  great  quanti¬ 
ties  in  painting,  and  is  known  by  the  name  of  Ceruse  or 
White  lead.  The  preparation  of  this  pigment  has  become  a 
.distinct  trade,  and  is  practised  in  some  places  of  this  king- 


359 


dom  where  lead  is  procurable  at  the  lowest  price.  The  pro¬ 
cess  for  making  White-lead  is  as  follows. 

Leaden  plates  rolled  spirally,  so  that  the  space  of  an  inch 
shall  be  left  between  each  circumvolution,  must  be  placed 
vertically  in  earthen  pots  of  a  proper  size,  containing  some 
good  vinegar.  These  leaden  rolls  ought  to  be  so  supported 
in  the  pots,  that  they  do  not  touch  the  vinegar,  but  that  the 
acid  vapour  may  circulate  freely,  between  the  circumvolu¬ 
tions.  The  pots  are  to  be  covered  and  placed  in  a  bed  of 
dung,  of  sand  bath,  by  which  a  gentle  heat  may  be  applied. 
The  acid  of  vinegar  being  thus  reduced  into  vapour,  easily 
attaches  itself  to  the  surface  of  these  plates,  penetrates  them, 
and  is  impregnated  with  the  metal,  which  it  reduces  to  a 
beautiful  white  powder,  called  Ceruse.  When  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  it  is  collected  on  the  plates,  the  rolls  are  taken  out 
of  the  pots  and  unfolded;  the  Ceruse  is  then  taken  off,  and 
they  are  again  rolled  up,  that  the  operation  may  be  repeated. 

In  this  process  the  acid  being  overcharged  with  lead,  this 
metal  is  not  properly  in  a  saline  state;  hence  Ceruse  is  not 
in  crystals,  nor  soluble  in  water. 

This  preparation  is  the  only  white  hitherto  found  fit  for 
painting  in  oil:  but  the  discovery  of  another  would  be  desi¬ 
rable;  not  only  from  the  faults  of  Ceruse,  but  also  from  its 
injuring  the  health  of  people  employed  with  it. 

WHITE  PEPPER  ;  see  Pepper . 

WINE. 


F.  Vin. 

G.  Wein. 
D.  Wyn. 
I.  Vino . 
S.  Vino. 
P.  Vinho. 


DA.  Vin. 

SW.  Vin. 

POL.  Wino. 

R.  Winoy  Winogradnoe 
wino. 

L.  Vinum. 


Wine  is  an  agreeable  spirituous  liquor,  produced  by  fer¬ 
mentation  from  those  vegetable  substances  that  contain  sac¬ 
charine  matter.  A  very  great  number  of  vegetable  substances, 
may  be  made  to  afford  Wine:  as  grapes,  currants,  mulber¬ 
ries,  elderberries,  cherries,  apples,  pulse,  beans,  peas,  tur¬ 
nips,  radishes,  &c.  Hence  under,  the  class  of  Wines  or 
vinous  liquors,  come  not  only  Wines  absolutely  so  called, 
but  also  ale,  cider,  & c. 

Wine,  however,  is  in  a  more  particular,  manner  appro¬ 
priated  to  the  liquor,  drawn  from  the  fruit  of  the  common 
vine,  vitis  vinifera.  All  the  sorts  are  propagated  either  from 


360 


layers  or  cuttings,  the  former  of  which  is  greatly  practised 
in  England,  but  the  latter  is  much  preferable.  . 

The  vine  was  introduced  by  the  Romans  into  Britain,  and 
appears  formerly  to  have  been  very  common.  From  the 
name  of  vineyard  yet  adhering  to  the  ruinous  scites  of  our 
castles  and  monasteries,  there  seem  to  have  been  few  in  the 
country  but  what  had  a  vineyard  belonging  to  them.  The 
county  of  Gloucester  is  particularly  commended  by  Malmsbury 
in  the  twelfth  century,  as  excelling  all  the  rest  of  the  kingdom 
in  the  number  and  goodness  of  its  vineyards.  In  the  earlier 
periods  of  our  history  the  isle  of  Ely  was  expressly  denomi¬ 
nated  the  isle  of  vines  by  the  Normans. 

Doomsday  exhibits  to  us  a  particular  proof  that  Wine  was- 
made  in  England  during  the  period  preceding  the  conquest. 
After  the  conquest,  the  Bishop  of  Ely  appears  fro  have  re¬ 
ceived  at  least  three  or  four  tons  of  Wine  annually,  as  tithes, 
from  the  produce 'of  the  vineyards  in  his  diocese;  and  to 
have  made  frequent  reservations  in  his  leases,  of  a  certain . 
quantity  of  Wine  for  rent.  A  plot  of  land  in  London,  which 
now  forms  East  Smithfield  and  some  adjoining  streets,  was 
withheld  from  the  religious  house  within  Aldgate  by  four 
successive  constables  of  the  tower,  in  the  reign  of  Rufus, 
Henry,  and  Stephen;  and  made  by  them  into  a  vineyard, 
to  their  great  emolument  and  profit.  The  Wines  of  Glou¬ 
cestershire,  within  a  century  after  the  conquest,  were  little 
inferior  to  the  French  in  sweetness.  The  beautiful  region 
of  Gaul,  which  had  not  a  single  vine  in  the  days  of  Caesar, 
had  numbers  so  early  as  the  time  of  Strabo.  The  south  of 
it  was  particularly  stocked  with  them,  and  they  had  even 
extended  themselves  into  the  interior  parts  of  the  country: 
but  the  grapes  of  the  latter  did  not  ripen  kindly.  France 
was  famous  for  her  vineyards  in  the  reign  of  Vespasian,  and 
even  exported  the  Wines  to  Italy.  The  whole  province  of 
Narbonne  was  then  covered  with  vines;  and  the  Wine  mer¬ 
chants  of  the  country  were  remarkable  for  all  the  knavish 
dexterity  of  our  modern  brewers;  tinging  it  with  smoke, 
colouring  it  with  herbs  and  noxious' dyes,  and  even  adulte¬ 
rating  the  taste  and  appearance  with  aloes.  And  as  our  first 
vines  would  be  transplanted  from  Gaul,  so  were  in  all  pro¬ 
bability  those  of  the  Allobroges  in  Franche  Compte.  These 
were  peculiarly  fitted  for  cold  countries.  They  ripened  even 
in  the  frosts  of  the  advancing  winter,  and  they  were  of  the 
same  colour,  and  seem  to  have  been  of  the  same  kind,  as 
the  black  muscadines  of  the  present  day.  These  were  pretty 
certainly  brought  into  Britain  a  little  'after  vines  had  been 
carried  over  all  the  kingdom  of  Gaul,  and  about  the  middle 


361 


of  the  third  century:  when  the  numerous  plantations  had 
gradually  spread  over  the  face  of  the  latter,  and  must  natu¬ 
rally  have  continued  their  progress  into  the  former. 

The  Romans,  even  nearly  to  the  days  of  Lucullus,  were 
very  seldom  able  to  regale  themselves  with  Wine.  Very 
little  was  then  raised  in  the  compass  of  Itary,  and  the  foreign 
Wines  were  so  dear,  that  they  were  rarely  produced  at  an 
entertainment;  and  when  they  were,  each  guest  was  indulged 
only  with  a  single  draught.  But  in  the  seventh  century  of 
Rome,  as  their  conquests  augmented  the  degree  of  their 
wealth,  and  enlarged  the  sphere  of  their  luxury,  Wines 
became  the  object  of  particular  attention.  Many  vaults  were 
constru&ed,  and  good  stocks  of  liquor  deposited  in  them. 
This  naturally  gave  encouragement  to  the  Wines  of  Italy. 
The  Falernian  rose  immediately  into  great  repute;  and  a 
variety  of  others,  that  of  Florence  among  the  rest,  succeeded 
it  about  the  close  of  the  century.  The  more  westerly  parts 
of  the  European  continent  were  at  once  subjfedled  to  the 
arms,  and  enriched  with  the  vines  of  Italy. 

The  process  of  making  Wine  is  as  follows:  when  the 
grapes  are  ripe,  and  the  saccharine  principle  is  developed, 
they  are  mashed,  and  a  few  days  afterwards  pressed.  The 
juice  which  flows  out  is  received  in  vessels  of  a  proper 
capacity  in  which  the  fermentation  appears,  and  proceeds 
in  the  following  manner.  At  the  end  of  several  days,  and 
frequently  after  a  few  hours,  according  to  the  heat  of  the 
atmosphere,  the  nature  of  the  grapes,  the  quantity  of  the 
liquid,  and  the  temperature  of  the  place  in  which  the  ope¬ 
ration  is  performed,  a  movement  is  produced  in  the  liquor, 
which  continually  increases;  the  volume  of  the  fluid  aug¬ 
ments;  it  becomes  turbid  and  oily;  carbonic  acid  is  disen¬ 
gaged,  which  fills  all  the  unoccupied  part  of  the  vessel,  and 
the  temperature  rises.  At  the  end  of  several  days  these 
tumultuous  motions  subside,  the  mass  falls,  the  liquor  be¬ 
comes  clearer,  and  is  found  to  be  less  saccharine,  more 
odorant,  and  of  a  red  colour,  if  the  grapes  have  been  black ; 
from  the  reaction  of  the  ardent  spirit  upon  the  colouring 
matter  of  the  pellicle  of  the  grape.  To  give  a  deep  red 
colour  to  wine  it  is  necessary  to  use  only  black  grapes,  and 
to  leave  them  fermenting  in  their  mashed  state  previous  to 
the  pressing. 

The  Wine  is  usually  taken  out  of  the  fermenting  vessels 
when  the  phenomena  of  fermentation  have  subsided.  When 
the  mass  is  settled,  the  colour  of  the  liquor  is  well  developed; 
when  it  has  become  clear,  and  its  heat  has  disappeared,  it 
Z  z 


562 


is  then  put  into  casks,  where,  by  a  second,  less  sensible 
fermentation,  the  Wine  is  clarified,  its  principles  combine 
‘  more  perfectly  together,  and  its  taste  and  smell  become 
more  and  more  developed.  If  this  fermentation  be  stopped 
or  suffocated,  the  gaseous  principles  are  retained,  the  Wine 
is  brisker,  and  r  •  re  of  the  nature  of  must. 

The  different  kinds  of  Wines  produced  in  Europe  and 
other  parts  of  the  world  are  many;  the  principal  of  them, 
and  their  qualities,  are  well  known:  a  catalogue  of  them 
would  serve  no  purpose  here. 

The  colour  of  wine  is  frequently  artificial;  a  deep  red  is 
almost  always  the  effect  of  artificial  additions,  as  the  red 
woods,  elder  berries,  bilberries,  &c.  In  France  no  secret 
is  made  of  these  practices,*  the  colouring  matters  being  pub¬ 
licly  thrown  out  after  they  have  been  used.  A  common 
practice  is  to  throw  sugar  of  lead  and  alum  amongst  sour 
Wine  in  order  to  sweeten  it.  These  substances  being  ex¬ 
tremely  hurtful  to  the  human  constitution  it  becomes  of 
importance,  to  be  able  to  dete£t  them,  when  mixed  with 
Wine.  For  this  purpose  the  following  test  is  furnished: 

Take  equal  parts  of  calcined  oyster  shells  and  crude  sul¬ 
phur  in  fine  powder,  and  put  them  in  a  crucible,  which 
place  into  the  fire,  and  raise  the  heat  suddenly,  till  it  has 
been  exposed'  to  a  white  heat  for  fifteen  minutes.  Then 
take  it  out,  let  it  cool,  beat  the  ingredients  to  powder,  and 
put  them  into  a  well  corked  bottle.  To  prepare  the  test 
liquor,  put  twenty  grains  of  this  powder,  together  with  one 
hundred  and  twenty  grains  of  cream  of  tartar,  into  a  strong 
bottle,  fill  it  up  with  water,  boil  it  for  an  hour,  and  let  it 
cool.  Cork  the  bottle  immediately  and  shake  it  from  time 
to  time.  After  some  hours  repose,  decant  off  the  clear 
liquor  into  an  ounce  phial,  having  first  put  twenty-two  drops 
of  muriatic  acid  into  each  phial.  Cork  these  phials  accu¬ 
rately  with  a  little  wax  mixed  up  with  a  little  turpentine. 
One  part  of  this  liquor,  mixed  with  three  parts  of  suspe&ed 
Wine,  will  discover  the  presence  of  the  smallest  quantity 
of  lead  or  copper,  by  a  very  sensible  black  precipitate;  and 
of  arsenic,  bv  an  orange  precipitate.  Pure  wine  remains 
limpid  after  the  addition  of  this  liquor. 

To  discover  whether  Wine  is  free  of  alum,  put  a  small 
quantity  of  it  with  limewater;  this  mixture,  at  the  end  of 
twelve  or  fifteen  hours,  will  furnish  a  quantity  of  crystals, 
which  may  be  separated  by  filtration,  and  these  crystals  will 
be  easiest  discovered  when  the  quantities  of  wine  and  lime- 
water  are  equal.  Wine  which  contains  alum  will  not  form 


363 


crystals  when  mixed  with  lime  water,  but  merely  deposites 
a  muddy  sediment. 

The  greatest  proportion  of  the  wines  consumed  in  this 
country  are.  brought  from  Spain  and-  Portugal,  particularly 
the  latter  kingdom;  government  having  always  discouraged 
the  importation  of  French  Wines  by  heavy  taxes.  We  are 
not  sure  how  far  such  conduct  is  founded  on  good  policy, 
as  the  French  Wines  are  certainly,  the  most  wholesome, 
and  might  be  the  cheapest.  The  advantages  which  Britain 
derives  from  the  Portugal  trade  are  so  great,  that  they 
deserve  some  return,  and  it  would  perhaps  not  be  easy  to 
secure  them  on  any  other  terms. 

The  consumption  of  the  German,  French,  and  Italian 
Wines  in  this  country,  is  but  trifling.  Sicily  produces  red 
•  and  white  Wines  equally  as  strong  as  the  Portugal  Wines, 
and  which  would  come  cheaper.  Amongst  them  the  white 
Mount  Etna  Wine  is  famous  for  its  strength,  being  very, 
similar  in.  taste  to  Madeira. 

The  Constantia  or  Cape  Wine,  sold  in  Europe  at  so  high 
a  price,  comes  from  two  farms,  called  Great  and  Little 
Constantia,  situated  below  the  East  side  of  Table  mountain, 
on  the  Cape  of  Good  Plope.  This  Wine  is  highly  delicious, 
but  so  extremely  sweet,  as  only  to  be  fit  for  the  desert. 
Of  the  red  Constantia  about  sixty  pipes  are  made,  and  of 
the  white  about  ninety. 

The  best  Cyprus  Wine  is  produced  in  that  part  of  the 
island  of  Cyprus  called  the  Commandery,  from  the  Grand 
Commandery  of  the  Templars  and  Knights  of  Malta  occupy¬ 
ing  that  district.  This  Wine  is  accounted  a  delicacy  at  most 
of  the  tables  of  Europe.  The  whole  quantity  of  the  best 
Wines  made  annually  in  Cyprus  amounts  to  forty  thou¬ 
sand  jars.  Larnic  is  the  port  in  the  island  from  which  all 
the  Wines  are  exported;  and  they  principally  go  to  Ve¬ 
nice.  • 

On  landing  Wines  in  this  country,  the  less  they  are  ex¬ 
posed  the  better;  for  they  are  affected  by  the  seasons,  and 
more  or  less  by  the  weather.  The  great  art  in  keeping 
Wines  is  to  prevent  their  fretting,  which  is  done  by  keeping 
them  in  the  same  degree  of  heat.  In.  spring  and  fall  the 
Wines  of  Bourdeaux  are  subject  to  changes  that  may  be 
dangerous,  if  not  prevented  by  necessary  rackings:  these 
changes  are  solely  the  effect:  of  the  seasons.  If  Wines  are 
chilled,  and  of  course  turn  foul,  from  being  shipped  and 
landed  in  cold  weather,  they  will  soon  recover  by  putting 
them  in  a  warm  vault,  well  covered  with  saw  dust.  But  if 


364 


shipped  or  landed  in  summer,  if  the  smallest  degree  of  fer¬ 
mentation  be  found  on  them,  it  will  be  requisite  to  dip 
the  bung  cloths  in  brandy,  and  leave  the  bungs  loose  for 
some  days,  to  give  them  time  to  cool;  and  if  in  a  fortnight 
or  three  weeks  the  fermentation  does  not  cease,  and  the 
Wine  become  bright,  it  will  be  proper  to  rack  it,  matching 
the  hogsheads  well  with  brimstone,  and  force  it  with  the 
white  of  eight  eggs.  If  it  then  becomes  fine,  bung  it 
tight,  and  let  it  remain  so  until  it  is  bottled.  Attention 
should  be  had  to  bottle  in  fine  weather,  when  the  wind  is 
north,  but  to  avoid  cold  and  frosty  weather.  The  months 
of  April  and  October  are  favourable. 

The  forcings  proper  for  claret,  are  the  whites  of  a  dozen 
eggs,  beat  up  with  a  teaspoonful  of  fine  salt,  and  well  worked 
with  a  forcing  rod.  This  is  for  one  hogshead,  and  care 
must  be  taken  not  to  use  any  bad  egg.  The  forcing  for 
white  Wine,  is  isinglass  dissolved  in  wine.  An  ounce  is 
sufficient  for  (wo  hogsheads.  No  salt  is  to  he  used. 

WO  AD. 


F.  Past elf  Quede,  Vcuede. 

G.  Waid. 

D.  Weede . 

X-  Quadoney  Quadoy  Glastro , 
6.  Pa st elf  G last o,  . 

P.  Pastel. 


DA.  Vede. 

SW.  Vejde, 

POL.  Sinilo. 

R.  Ljernak. 

L.  Quaduht,  G las  turn. 


The  isatis  tinftoria,  or  Woad  plant,  is  biennial,  the  lower 
leaves  are  of  an  oblong  oval  figure,  and  pretty  thick  con¬ 
sistence,  ending  in  obtuse  roundish  points,  of  a  lucid  green. 

The  stalks  rise  four  feet  high,  dividing  into  several  branches, 
garnished  with  arrow-shaped  leaves,  sitting  close  to  the  stalk.- 
The  branches  are  terminated  by  small  yellow  flowers.  The 
time  for  gathering  the  crop  is  according  to  the  seasons*,  but 
it  should  be  performed  as  soon  as  the  leaves  are  fully  grown 
while  they  are  perfectly  green :  for  when  they  begin  to 
change  pale,  great  part  of  their  goodness  is  over.  If  the 
land  be  good,  and  the  crop  well  husbanded,  it  will  produce 
three  or  four  gatherings,  but  the  two  first  are  the  best, 
being  worth  about  four  times  as  much  as  the  third  and  fourth 
crop. 

The  leaves  are  carried  directly  to  a  mill,  much  resembling 
the  oil  or  tan  mills,  and  ground  into  a.  smooth  paste.  If 
this  process  was  deferred  for  some  time  they  would  putrify, 
and  send  forth  an  unsufferable  stench.  The  paste  is  laid 
in  heaps,  pressed  close  and  smooth,,  and  the  blackish  crust 


365 


which  forms  on  the  outside,  reunited  if  it  happens  to  crack. 
If  this  was  neglected,  little  worms  would  be  produced,  and 
the  Woad  would  lose  part  of  its  strength.  After  lying  for 
fifteen  days  the  heaps  are  opened,  the  crust  rubbed,  and 
mixed  with  the  inside,  and  the  matter  formed  into  oval 
balls,  which  are  pressed  close  and  solid  in  wooden  moulds. 
These  are  dried  upon  hurdles;  they  turn  black  on  the  out¬ 
side  if  in  the  sun;  if  in  a  close  place,  yellowish,  especially 
if  the  weather  be  rainy.  The  dealers  in  this  commodity 
prefer  the  first.  The  good  balls  are  distinguished  by  their 
being  weighty,  of  an  agreeable  smell,  and  when  rubbed,  of 
a  violet  colour  within. 

Woad  not  only  affords  a  lasting  and  substantial  blue,  which, 
according  to  the  scale  of  the  dyers  may  be  reduced  into 
many  different  shades,  but  is  also  of  great  use  in  dying  and 
fixing  many  other  colours.  But  the  use  of  Woad  has  very 
much  decreased  since  the  introduction  of  indigo,  which  af¬ 
fords  a  more  lively  and  pleasing  colour,  is  managed  with 
more  ease  by  the  dyers,  and  does  their  business  more  ex¬ 
peditiously.  Woad  and  indigo  are  freq^^ly  used  in  con¬ 
junction;  the  former  to  give  solidity  and  ^Mance,  the  lat¬ 
ter  brightness  and  colour. 

Woad  was  once  the  great  staple  of  Languedoc,  and  was 
cultivated  also  in  Normandy,  and  other  provinces  of  France. 
It  now  is  cultivated  in  several  parts  of  Great  Britain,  in 
Spain,  Portugal,  the  Azores,  and  Canary  islands,  in  Switzer¬ 
land,  different  parts  of  Germany,  and  in  Sweden. 

WOOL. 

DA.  Uld, 

SW.  Ull. 

POL.  Welna. 

R.  Wolna ,  Sc  her  st, 

L.  Lana . 

Wool  is  the  covering  of  the  sheep;  and  like  hair  of  horses, 
cattle,  &c.  completes  its  growth  in  one  year,  then  falls  off, 
and  is  succeeded  by  a  fresh  crop.  Hairs  are  commonly  of 
the  same  thickness  in  every  part;  but  Wool  constantly  dif¬ 
fers  in  thickness  in  different  parts,  being  generally  thicker 
at  the  points  than  at  the  roots.  That  part  of  the  fleece  of 
sheep  which  grows  during  the  winter  is  finer  than  what 
grows  in  summer.  Each  fleece  consists  of  wool  of  divers 
qualities  and  degrees  of  fineness,  which  the  dealers  take  care 


F.  Lscunc, 

G.  JVolle. 

D.  Wol 
I.  Lana . 

S.  Lana . 

P.  Laa ,  La. 


S6G 


to  separate.  The  French,  Spaniards,  and  English,  usually 
separate  each  fleece  into  three  sorts,  ,  viz.  1,  Mother  Wool* 
which  ds  that  of  the  back  and  neck.  2,  The  Wool  of  the 
tails  and  legs.  3,  That  of  the  breast  and  under  the  belly. 
These  assortments  are  called  prime,  second  and  third  qua¬ 
lity.  The  Spaniards  in  packing  their  Wool  mark  each  bag 
with  a  capital  letter,  denoting  the  sort.  If  the  separation 
be  well  made,  in  fifteen  t^ags  of  Wool  there  will  be  twelve 
marked  R,  that  is  refined,  or  prime;  two  marked  F  for  fine 
or  second;  and  one  S  for  the  third  quality. 

In  Spain  there  are  two  kinds  of  sheep:  the  coarse  wooled, 
which  always  remain  in  their  native  country,  and  are  housed 
every  night  in  winter,  and  the  fine  wooled,  which  are  con¬ 
stantly  in  the  open  air,  and  travel  every  summer  from  the 
cool  mountains  of  the  northern  parts  of  Spain,  to  feed  in 
winter  on  the  southern  warm  plains  of  Andalusia,  Mancha, 
and  Estremadura.  Of  these  latter  it  appears,  from  accurate 
computation,  that  there  are  about  five  millions;  and  that 
the  Wool  and  flesh  of  a  flock  of  ten  thousand  sheep,  pro¬ 
duce  yearly  abo#*  ~  wenty-four  reals  a  head,  two  of  which 
belong  to  t&e  v***  er,  six  to  the  king,  and  the  remaining 
sixteen  are  afiowed-for  the  expenses  of  pasture,  tithes,  shep¬ 
herds,  dogs,  shearing,  &c.  Ten  thousand  sheep  form  a 
flock,  which  is  divided  into  ten  tribes,  under  the  manage¬ 
ment  of  one  person,  who  has  absolute  dominion  over  fifty 
shepherds  and  fifty  dogs.  They  leave  the  north  of  Spain 
in  the  month  of  Q&ober,  and  return  in  April:  and  whether 
it  be  habit,  or  natural  instinCt,  that  draws  them  towards  the 
climate,  which  at  those  seasons  becomes  most  proper  for 
them,  the  inquietude  which  they  manifest,  might  in  case  of 
need,  serve  as  an  almanac  for  their  conductors. 

The  Spanish  wandering  sheep  on  the  whole,  resemble 
those  of  the  South  Down?;  their  legs  are  as  short  as  those 
of  that  breed:  a  point  which  merits  observation,  as  they  . 
travel  so  much  and  so  weii.  Their  shape  is  very ’good: 
round  ribs,  and  flat  straight  backs;  and  would  with  us  be 
reckoned  handsome  sheep,  and  in  good  order  and  flesh'. 
The  soil  of  these  mountain  pastures  is  in  general  stony,  and 
the  herbage  has  nothing  peculiar,  so  that  the  fine  quality 
of  the  Wool  seems  principally  owing  to  the  constant  exposure 
of  a  temperate  atmosphere.  The  fleece  of  some  of  the  finest 
rams  is  said  to  weigh  as  much  as  eight  pounds;  but  on  an 
average,  the  fleeces  of  the  flock,  weigh  from  four  to  five 
pounds  English. 

The  number  of  stationary  sheep  in  Spain  is  computed  to 
be  eight  millions. 


367 


In  England,  the  best  sort  of  sheep  for  fine  Wool,  are 
those  bred  in  Herefordshire,  Devonshire,  and  Worcester¬ 
shire;  but  they  are  small  and  black  faced,  and  bear  but  a 
small  quantity.  Warwick,  Leicestershire,  Buckingham,  and 
Northamptonshire,  breed  a  large-boned  sheep,  of  .  the  best 
shape  and  deepest  Wool  we  have.  The  marshes  of  Lincoln¬ 
shire  breed  a  very  large  kind  of  sheep,  but  their  Wool 
is  not  good,  unless  the  breed  be  mended,  by  bringing  in 
sheep  of  other  countries  among  them,  which  is  a  scheme 
of  late  very  successfully  followed  there.  Suffolk  also  breeds 
a  very  valuable  kind  of  sheep.  The  northern  counties,  in 
general,  breed  sheep  with  long,  but  hairy  Wool:  that  how¬ 
ever,  taken  from  the  neck  and  shoulders  of  the  Yorkshire 
sheep,  is  used  for  mixing  with  Spanish  Wool,  in  some  of 
the  finest  cloths.  Wales  bears  a  small  hardy  kind  of  sheep, 
which  has  the  best  tasted  flesh,  but  the  worst  Wool  of  all. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  of  more  extensive  use  than  the  finest 
Segovian  fleeces;  for  the  benefit  of  the  flannel  manufacture 
is  universally  known. 

The  sheep  of  Ireland  vary  like  those  of  Great  Britain; 
those  of  Scotland  are  of  a  small  kind,  and  their  fleeces 
coarse. 

The  finest  French  Wool  comes  from  Rousillon  and  Berry; 
the  latter  is  said  to  have  the  particular  property,  that  it  will 
knot  or  bind  with  any  other  sort,  whereas  other  kinds  will 
only  knot  with  their  own  sort. 

Among  the  ancients,  the  Wools  of  Attica,  Megara,  Lao- 
dicea,  Apulia,  and  especially  those  of  Tarentum,  Parma, 
and  Altino,  were  the  most  valued.  Varro  assures  us,  that 
the  people  there  used  to  clothe  their  sheep  with  skins, 
to  secure  the  Wool  from  being  damaged. 

YELLOW  BERRIES,  avignon  berries. 

F.  Grains  d'  Avignon,  J  G.  Gelb  Bceren , 

This  is  the  fruit  of  a  species  of  Lycium,  growing  plenti¬ 
fully  in  different  parts  of  France,  and  particularly  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Avignon.  The  berry  is  somewhat  less 
than  a  pea:  its  colour  is  green  approaching  towards  a  yellow, 
and  it  is  of  an  astringent  and  bitter  tas'te,  It  is  much  used 
by  the  dyers,  who  stain  a  yellow  colour  with  it:  and  by  the 
painters,  who  *dso  make  a  fine  golden  yellow  of  it. 


368 


ZINC,  SPELTER. 


jF,  Zinc. 

G.  Z injit  Spiauter . 

D.  Zinkt  Spiauter. 

I.  Zinco . 

S.  Zinco . 

P.  Z'jnco . 

Zinc  is  a  semimetal  of  a  bluish  white  colour.  It  is  the 
least  brittle  of  any  of  the  semimetals,  and  when  amply  sup¬ 
plied  with  phlogiston,  it  possesses  a  semidu&ility,  by  which 
it  may  be  flattened  into  thin  plates.  When  broken  it  ap¬ 
pears  formed  of  many  flat,  shining  plates  or  fauts,  which  are 
larger  when  slowly,  than  when  hastily  cooled.  Exposed  to 
the  air,  it  contracts  in  length  of  time  a  yellowish  rust.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  to  that  of  water,  as  7^  to  one.  It  begins 
to  melt  as  soon  as  red  hot,  but  does  not  flow  thin,  till  the 
fire  is  raised  to  a  white  heat;  then  the  Zinc  immediately 
begins  to  burn  with  an  exceedingly  bright  and  beautiful 
flame. 

Zinc,  besides  its  medical  qualities,  is  of  great  use  in  the 
arts:  united  with  copper  in  different  proportions  it  forms 
brass  and  pinchbeck ;  and  united  with  tin  it  forms  a  kind  of 
pewter.  Its  inflammable  property,  renders  Zinc  an  useful 
ingredient  in  fireworks. 


ZAFFER;  see  Cobalt , 


DA.  Zink. 
SW.  Zink. 
POL.  Cynek. 
R.  Scbpiauter . 
L.  Zincum . 


THE  END. 


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